Electrical Arc Comparison - High Voltage Jacobs Ladder Discharge 28KV Different Currents 

Maybe you could make the electric discharge move in the direction you want if you apply a magnetic field at 90º angle to the discharge length.

There is also the vortex discharge thingie, but I never saw anything about using it for propulsion:

How Does a Plasma Vortex Work?

Electric Arcs in a Magnetic Field | Magnetic Games  

Plasma Vortex in Magnetic Field - Electric Lightning within a Magnetic Field - Physics Experience

Plasma Vortex in a Magnetic Field | Magnetic Games  

At best, I found this kickstarter:

Plasma Jet Electric Thrusters for Spacecraft

This is a plasma accelerator, essentially a plasma railgun. However, as the guys stated, it can only work in a single pulse, thus the necessity for funding to make it make more pulses.

And honestly, I don’t know if they implied this has a projectile or not, because a lot of the plasma railgun articles I find focuses on using plasma as the armature/rails instead of the accelerating matter itself.

Firing the Lorentz Plasma Cannon (You can kinda do that, if the current is strong enough, it will compress the plasma itself, creating a plasma filament wire)

(PDF) Development of Micro-Particles Accelerator with Pulse Formation 

This is one of the few exceptions, and I’m not even sure if it would work.

It does look like the dense plasma focus apparatus, though…

Dense plasma focus - Wikipedia 

Numerical simulation of plasma flows in curved coaxial ducts with longitudinal magnetic field 

[PDF] A contoured gap coaxial plasma gun with injected plasma armature. | Semantic Scholar 

Simulation of the inner electrode geometry effect on the rundown phase characteristics of a coaxial plasma accelerator 

Vapor shielding effects on energy transfer from plasma-gun generated ELM-like transient loads to material surfaces 

Air Force SBIR Phase I: Pulsed Plasmoid Propulsion System for Agile and Resilient Spacecraft 

Dynamic formation of stable current-driven plasma jets | Scientific Reports

Development of a high energy pulsed plasma simulator for the study of liquid lithium trenches 

MHD Centripetal Melter - Fusor Forums 

On the impact of the plasma jet energy on the product of plasmadynamic synthesis in the Si-C system 

Modeling of thermalization phenomena in coaxial plasma accelerators 

Dynamic formation of stable current-driven plasma jets | Scientific Reports 

1071 IEPC-93-117 HIGH-CURRENT STATIONARY PLASMA ACCELERATOR OF HIGH POWER V. P. Ageyev, V. G. Ostrovsky Scientific-Production As

Hall Current Plasma Accelerator

 Numerical simulation of the coaxial magneto- plasma accelerator and non-axisymmetric radio frequency discharge

ATON-Thruster Plasma Accelerator

Plasma propulsion for rocket engine using ion thruster 

Experimental characterization of railgun-driven supersonic plasma jets motivated by high energy density physics applications  

The Deadly Coilgun/Railgun Hybrid You've Never Heard Of (Helical Railguns) (yes, this one again, but you could use the tesla coils to create the magnetic field that will accelerate the discharge)

Plasma Gun Design, Particle Ion Beam Weapon SciPhi 08 

Design and optimization of a high thrust density air-breathing pulsed plasma thruster array | Journal of Electric Propulsion This one produced 21 millinewtons of thrust for every 9 joules with a frequency of 20 hertz and 21 millinewtons per kilowatt.

It is said in the article:

“Unlike many EP thruster experiments, no gas feedthrough was incorporated into the thruster. The TAMU PPT is passively filled relying on the ambient pressure inside of the vacuum chamber. This method may need to be adjusted in future experiments depending on the thruster installation method onboard a spacecraft. For example, if the thruster is relying on onboard propellant or the high-speed flow in front of the spacecraft a gas feedthrough would better model these circumstances than the current passive refill system.”

9806.65 millinewtons = 1 kilograms 9806.65 millinewtons / 28 millinewtons = 350.2 9 Joules x 350.2 = 3,152.1 joules per pulse for 1 kilogram 3,152.1 joules per pulse x 20 pulses per second = 63,042.75 joules 63,042.75 joules x 60 seconds x 60 minutes = 22,6953,900 Joules 22,6953,900 Joules = 84.5 horsepower hour = 63,406.2 watt hour for 1 kilogram of thrust

I mean, you “just” use 63,042.75 joules per second… You could have some quick boosts armored core style.

63,042.75 x 5000kg of thrust = 315,213,750 joules.

Also, another question:

At 35 kilometers of altitude the pressure is 0.00682831 and the temperature is -34ºC. Assuming I'm using this thruster at sea level, how would pressure influence the thrust generated?

The breakdown voltage of air is 3 kv/mm while vacuum is 30 kv/mm…

The pressure difference would be around 150 times at sea level, would that result in 150 times more thrust?

Theoretical and Experimental Analysis for an Air-Breathing Pulsed Plasma Thruster

“A theoretical model and laboratory results are used to demonstrate that specific thrust values of > 350 mN/kW can be generated by the system at desired altitudes of ~ 25 km.”

Oh well, you would more or less reduce the energy cost of 300 megajoules for 5 tons thrust to 30 megajoules to 5 tons of thrust.

And the pressure it worked with was 0.05 bars, instead of the 0.006 bars of the previous thruster.

Investigation of a Pulsed Plasma Thruster for Atmospheric Applications  

“Specific thrust measurements of 470 mN/kW were obtained using the pendulum based thrust stand.”

Electrohydrodynamic Thrust for In-Atmosphere Propulsion 

Electroaerodynamic Thruster Performance as a Function of Altitude and Flight Speed 

An Investigation of Ionic Wind Propulsion - NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

“A pin array was found to be optimum. Parametric experiments, and theory, showed that the thrust per unit power could be raised from early values of 5 N/kW to values approaching 50 N/kW, but only by lowering the thrust produced, and raising the voltage applied.” 

Design and testing of a laboratory setup for EHD propulsion studies 

On the performance of electrohydrodynamic propulsion | Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 

“ A thrust-to-power ratio as high as approximately 100 N kW−1 was obtained.”

As I believed, the increase in voltage increases the performance and efficiency of the ionocraft.

5000 kg = 50,000 Newtons = 500,000 watts for 5000kg of thrust 500,000 joules (per second) for 5000kg of thrust.

… But I find it ironic how the simple, flimsy ionocraft thruster just outperformed all of the crazy suggestions I’ve made and the highly complex ones I found…

Wait… Now I’m wondering how reliable that article is. I couldn’t find a single article with a similar output of thrust…

“100 N kW−1”

100^-1 = 0.01

huh… Is this correct?

Metre per second squared - Wikipedia 

“Newton's second law states that force equals mass multiplied by acceleration. The unit of force is the newton (N), and mass has the SI unit kilogram (kg). One newton equals one kilogram metre per second squared. Therefore, the unit metre per second squared is equivalent to newton per kilogram, N·kg−1, or N/kg.”

In any manner, if I really want to make a crapton of thrust, I better find a way of making this thing way studier than it already is…

Now I’m wondering how I could scale this up… How much thrust per area? How much thrust per kilogram?

ChatGPT:

“Ionocrafts, or electrohydrodynamic (EHD) thrusters, generate thrust by ionizing air and accelerating the ions using electric fields. Achieving high thrust-to-weight and thrust-to-area ratios in these devices is a significant engineering challenge, but recent research has made notable progress.

Thrust-to-Weight Ratio

Miniaturization has been a key strategy in enhancing the thrust-to-weight ratio of ionocrafts. Smaller devices benefit from favorable scaling laws, leading to improved performance metrics. For instance, researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, developed a millimeter-scale ionocraft with a relatively high thrust-to-weight ratio compared to other pico air vehicles. This advancement is attributed to the reduced size and mass of the device, which enhances its overall efficiency. 

The Ionocraft: Flying Microrobots With No Moving Parts 

Additionally, studies have indicated that decreasing the scale of thrusters can lead to increased thrust-to-weight ratios and reduced operating voltages required to achieve desired drift field strengths. This suggests that further miniaturization could continue to improve performance. 

Toward Controlled Flight of the Ionocraft: A Flying Microrobot Using Electrohydrodynamic Thrust With Onboard Sensing and No Moving Part 

Thrust-to-Area Ratio

The thrust-to-area ratio is influenced by factors such as electrode design, operating voltage, and ionization efficiency. Optimizing these parameters can lead to higher thrust densities. For example, an experimental investigation into ionic wind propulsion reported a maximum measured thrust of about 0.45 N with a flow area of roughly 0.1 m², resulting in a thrust-to-area ratio of approximately 4.5 N/m². Their optimum thrust-to-power ratio was 21 N/kW. 

An Investigation of Ionic Wind Propulsion “

Supposedly, increasing the distance between the electrodes increases overall efficiency.

I also wondered how to increase the arc discharge length:

ChatGPT:

“Introducing intermediate electrodes between the anode and cathode can indeed extend the overall distance of an electrical discharge arc. Each pair of adjacent electrodes forms its own gap, and the breakdown voltage for each gap depends on the product of the gas pressure and the gap distance, as described by Paschen's Law.

Paschen's law - Wikipedia 

To increase the arc discharge distance in air from 30 cm to 1 meter while maintaining an applied voltage of 1 megavolt (MV), you can introduce intermediate electrodes to divide the total gap into smaller segments. This approach leverages Paschen's Law, which relates the breakdown voltage to the product of gas pressure (p) and gap distance (d).

Paschen's Law Overview:

Paschen's Law is expressed as:

(When I copy paste scientific equations, it gets all messed up in the google document, so I’m just copy-pasting the printscreen)

Calculating the Number of Segments:

Given an applied voltage of 1 MV and a desired total gap of 1 meter, we can determine the optimal number of segments (n) by ensuring each segment operates below its breakdown voltage.

Determine the Breakdown Voltage per Segment:

The breakdown voltage for air at standard atmospheric pressure is approximately 30 kV/cm.

Paschen's Law 

Calculate the Maximum Gap per Segment:

To maintain a safe margin, let's assume each segment should not exceed 25 kV.

Maximum gap per segment = 25kV / 30kV/cm = 0.833cm

Determine the Number of Segments:

n = Total distance / Maximum gap per segment = 100cm / 0.833cm  ≈ 120

Implementation:

By introducing approximately 120 intermediate electrodes, each spaced about 0.833 cm apart, you can extend the arc discharge distance to 1 meter under an applied voltage of 1 MV. This configuration ensures that each individual gap remains below its breakdown voltage, facilitating a controlled and sustained discharge path.

Considerations:

Electrode thickness: While specific thickness values can vary based on several factors, a practical approach is to use electrodes with a thickness ranging from 1 mm to 5 mm. This range typically provides a balance between mechanical robustness and effective thermal management for high-voltage applications.

Precision: Accurate spacing and alignment of electrodes are crucial to prevent unintended discharges.

Insulation: Proper insulation between segments is necessary to maintain the integrity of the system.

Environmental Factors: Variations in pressure, temperature, and humidity can affect breakdown voltages and should be accounted for in the design.

By carefully designing the electrode configuration based on Paschen's Law, you can achieve the desired increase in arc discharge distance while operating within the constraints of the applied voltage.”

Maybe you could use a low power cold plasma source to make the air even more conductive, which would allow for bigger distances, no?

But in order for the cold plasma generator to work it would need an already existing air flow, meaning that I would need to make a moving part to make the non-moving part propulsion system to work. Or at least to start working…

Arc Discharge System for Micromachining of Helical Fiber - PMC (I think this one is very, very interesting)

Effect of electrode configuration on plasma spatial distribution and gas temperature in multi-arc plasma generator with three pairs of electrodes (this one as well)  

I mean, I was thinking of doing something like that turbineless jet engine that I suggested in the Helium Thermal Engine Generator. But without moving it (like an Archimedean Spiral?).

The ionic wind thrusters electrodes would be placed at the top and at the bottom of the engine, using the intermediate electrodes (and or cold plasma generators) I mentioned in order to increase the travel distance of the arc discharge.

🔶🔶🔶🔶

(I will write these orange squares to keep track of parts where I’m procrastinating, so I finish them already)

Cryogenic liquid air electrothermal propulsion:

With that aside: Maybe it would be interesting to cool down air until it becomes liquid and then use an electrothermal rocket.

How to Turn Air Into a Liquid 

Making Liquid Nitrogen with my Homemade Cryocooler 

Thermal rocket - Wikipedia 

According to the ideal rocket equation calculator, I would need 5 kilograms of liquid of air (assuming 1000 seconds of specific impulse) to accelerate 500 kg of mass to 300 km/h.

Rocket Equation Calculator 

Tsiolkovsky Rocket Equation Calculator • Model Rockets • Online Unit Converters 

According to the specific heat calculator, I would need 1,118,260 (1.2 megajoules) in order to convert 5 kg (5 liters more or less) of liquid air at -196ºC (70ºK) to 25ºC (room temperature).

I’d assume that this is the same exact amount of energy to convert room temperature air into liquid air, although either heating or cooling it down would have different efficiencies, and thus, different consumptions of energy.

Electrothermal rockets are around 90% efficient, while cryocoolers are below 20% to around 10%. Depending on the type.

Laser propulsion - Wikipedia

This says that even laser thermal rockets achieve a specific impulse of 800 seconds, not 1000. 

So the de facto result is:

7845 m/s of effective exhaust velocity

… Which gives the same result of 5 kilograms of initial mass 😐 

What is the pressure required inside the chamber anyway?

ChatGPT:

“In thermal rocket engines, the pressure within the expansion chamber—commonly referred to as the combustion chamber or pressure vessel—varies based on the engine's design and type.

Chemical Rocket Engines:

• Liquid Propellant Engines: These engines typically operate at chamber pressures ranging from 10 to 20 megapascals (MPa). For instance, the SpaceX Raptor engine has achieved chamber pressures up to 30 MPa. SpaceX Raptor - Wikipedia
• Solid Rocket Motors: Chamber pressures in solid rocket motors are generally lower, often between 3 to 7 MPa, depending on the specific design and application. Solid Rocket Motor Upgrade - Wikipedia 

Nuclear Thermal Rocket Engines:

• The NERVA (Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application) XE engine, a prominent example of nuclear thermal propulsion, operated at a chamber pressure of approximately 3.86 MPa. NERVA - Wikipedia

These pressures are critical for determining the engine's thrust and efficiency. Higher chamber pressures can enhance performance but require more robust materials and advanced cooling techniques to withstand the increased thermal and mechanical stresses.”

So the thermal laser rocket already has a similar specific impulse to that of nuclear rockets…

I was wondering, however, how much the specific impulse would increase if you increased the pressure inside of it to 30 MPa…

Taking into consideration that at 8.1 MPa gaseous hydrogen and gaseous oxygen rocket has 158 seconds of specific impulse and the liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen rocket has 450 seconds of ISP at 30 MPa:

30/8.1 = 3.7 450/158 = 2.84

So I would more or less triple the specific impulse…?

And thus, according to the rocket equation calculator, I would need 1.8kg of cryogenic propellant.

Rocket Equation Calculator 

Also, I was playing around with the numbers and I noticed that every time I tripled the pressure, thus, the specific impulse (ISP x 10 = effective exhaust velocity), the amount of mass required to accelerate the rocket was cut by half.

Observation:

The name is ideal rocket equation, in reality it would be lower. The raptor engine reached 380 seconds of ISP.

By the way, you can reduce it to -150ºC instead by increasing pressure to around 20 to 30 bars.

Source: Air - Thermophysical Properties 

So, how would I store cryogenic fluid at -196ºC anyway? (overshooting for safety)

ChatGPT:

“To effectively insulate a cryogenic tank storing ambient air cooled to -196°C (the boiling point of liquid nitrogen), it's essential to minimize heat transfer through conduction, convection, and radiation. The following materials and methods are commonly used in cryogenic insulation:

Multi-Layer Insulation (MLI): MLI consists of multiple layers of thin, reflective materials separated by spacers. This design significantly reduces heat transfer by radiation. MLI is widely used in spacecraft and cryogenic applications due to its high thermal performance and compactness.

Multi-layer insulation

Vacuum Insulation: Creating a vacuum between the inner and outer walls of the tank can significantly reduce heat transfer by conduction and convection. This method is commonly used in vacuum-insulated evaporators and other cryogenic storage vessels.

Vacuum insulated evaporator

Reflective Foils and Papers: Reflective foils, such as aluminum, combined with insulating papers, are used in multi-layer insulation systems to reflect thermal radiation. This combination is effective in reducing heat gain in cryogenic vessels.

YOUR GUIDE TO CRYOGENIC INSULATION”

“At extremely low temperatures, such as -196°C (77 K), Styrofoam (expanded polystyrene) and other plastics exhibit significant changes in their mechanical properties.

Styrofoam at -196°C:

Styrofoam is a thermoplastic polymer composed of polystyrene, which is known to become brittle at low temperatures. At -196°C, Styrofoam would undergo a transition from its typical flexible state to a brittle one, making it susceptible to cracking or shattering under stress. This behavior is due to the reduction in molecular mobility at such low temperatures, leading to a loss of ductility. 

Low Temperature Properties of Polymers 

Behavior of Other Plastics at -196°C:

The response of plastics to low temperatures varies depending on their chemical structure and molecular composition:

Polyethylene (PE): PE becomes brittle at temperatures below -184°C (-120°F). 

Embrittlement - Wikipedia 

Polypropylene (PP): PP exhibits brittleness at temperatures below -190°C (-310°F). 

Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS): ABS becomes brittle at temperatures below -184°C (-300°F). 

Nylon: Nylon exhibits brittleness at temperatures below -184°C (-300°F). 

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE): PTFE remains relatively stable at low temperatures but can become brittle below -275°F (-170°C). 

In general, most plastics transition from a ductile to a brittle state as temperatures decrease, with the specific transition temperature varying based on the polymer type. This transition is characterized by a decrease in molecular mobility, leading to reduced flexibility and increased susceptibility to fracture under stress. 

Low Temperature Properties of Polymers “

Also, remember that I posted earlier a NASA document showing that epoxy composite materials retain their strengths next to absolute 0 (-273ºC).

Testing Tensile and Shear Epoxy Strength at Cryogenic Temperatures

Cryogenic Impact on Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy Composites for Hydrogen Storage Vessels 

Aluminum also survives at these temperatures, apparently:

Influence of Cryogenic Temperatures on the Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of 2195-T8 Alloy 

Cryogenic Deformation Behaviour of Aluminium Alloy 6061-T6 | Metals and Materials International

Glass and ceramics also (seems to) stay okay at such temperatures.

Glass Types & Properties

Although I don’t like making these pressure vessels, you have to make them as such.

After all, once you start heating them up, they will expand and go somewhere. Preferably out of the rocket nozzle.

There is also the possibility of the nitrogen and oxygen reacting into a combustion due to their high concentrations.

Water hydrolysis Propulsion:

… Ooooor I could simply take water (from the humidity in the air) and use electrolysis to separate it into oxygen and hydrogen, then make propulsion out of it. 😐

ROCKET that LITERALLY BURNS WATER as FUEL 

DIY Atmospheric Water Generator! - Produces/Extracts Distilled Water from the air! - DIY distiller 

Drinking Water From Thin Air?! How To Harvest Moisture With A Dehumidifier

Peltier water generator  

Well, I just can’t find the specific impulse of oxygen and hydrogen gas. I can only find their specific impulse in liquid form…

Performance verification of a laboratory scale hydrogen/oxygen combustion chamber (it achieved a specific impulse of 158 seconds at pressure or 8100 kPa [81 bars] at a flow of 22g/s of hydrogen and 65g/s for oxygen with a thrust of 137 newtons [13 kg])

Gaseous Hydrogen/Oxygen Injector Performance Characterization 

VERY LOW THRUST GASEOUS OXYGEN-HYDROGEN ROCKET ENGINE IGNITION TECHNOLOGY  (325 seconds of specific impulse at 517 kN/m² [5.17 bars] producing 1 newton of thrust)

Accordingly to this specific impulse calculator, that would result in 1549.5 m/s of effective exhaust velocity.

Specific Impulse Calculator 

Again, inputting 500 kg of final mass on the ideal rocket engine calculator, it got 27 kilograms of initial mass.

Rocket Equation Calculator 

So, this one needs 27 kilograms of water converted into hydrogen and oxygen, but the liquid air propulsion needs just 5 kg?

I know why: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_impulse

The specific impulse of liquid oxygen + liquid hydrogen is just 450 seconds, while its effective exhaust velocity is 4,400 m/s.

And like I said in the previous section, it needs around 30 MPa of pressure.

Almost half of the thermal laser propulsion… So I’m just reducing what is already low…

I asked ChatGPT:

Me:

“I don't understand, normally it is said that these thermal rockets (resistorjet, microwave thermal rocket, arcjet, laser thermal rocket etc) are really low thrust with high efficiency/specific impulse, but how can they produce low thrust?

For example, if you calculate the amount of joules required to heat and expand and generate thrust, it gives a certain amount of joules that you could supply instantly with a capacitor bank.

Still, all of these examples use several kilowatts of power for little to no thrust over long periods.”

ChatGPT answered:

“useless garbage”

In essence, it keeps seeing that nuclear thermal rockets have better thrust because they are nuclear, even if I say I will supply the proper power in joules.

But in reality, nuclear thermal rockets also suffer from the same problem.

It was just saying it has higher specific impulse and higher thrust because I assumed it was the case and it doesn’t dare to correct me.

Engine Intro - Atomic Rockets 

Engine List 1 - Atomic Rockets

It says the amount of watts they consume, but not the duration, thus, not the amount of joules required.

ELI5: Why does a spacecraft propulsion system either have high thrust or high specific impulse, but can't have both at the same time? 

The Orion Project aka pulsed nuclear detonation propulsion system has both high impulse and high thrust because it is a detonation aka explosion.

Project Orion (nuclear propulsion) - Wikipedia

“The Orion concept offered both high thrust and high specific impulse, or propellant efficiency: 2,000 pulse units (Isp) under the original design and an Isp of perhaps 4,000 to 6,000 seconds according to the Air Force plan, with a later 1968 fusion bomb proposal by Dyson potentially increasing this to more than 75,000 Isp, enabling velocities of 10,000 km/sec.” 

But technically speaking, a rocket is a continuously detonated bomb…

How the hell do I make sure I get the propulsion and efficiency that I desire with the minimal mass usage possible?

However, kinetic energy is calculated as “mass x velocity”, then how do I make sure that the amount of thrust is properly generated?

Example, a tank round’s gunpowder has around 10 megajoules of energy per kilogram, while weighing around 10 to 20kg. Thus having a total of 100 to 200 megajoules in energy in total. It has 30 tons of recoil and its round (such as that tungsten dart) has around 10 megajoules of kinetic energy.

Then why can’t I make a thermal rocket booster like this?

Wikipedia says that the pressure inside the barrel is around 500 to 700 MPa.

120×570mm NATO - Wikipedia 

So, 100 or 200 mJ / 30 tons of recoil = 3.3 to 6.6 megajoules of energy required for every 1000 kg of thrust, thus requiring 16 to 33 megajoules of energy for 5 tons of thrust to move a mass of 500kg to 300 km/h.

But tank cannons have 30% of efficiency in transferring the energy to the round and the rest is either lost or spent pushing the barrel with the recoil of 30 tons, no?

Taking into consideration the calculation of the tank ammunition, it would need 2 to 4 kilograms of gunpowder with 10 Megajoule per kilogram of energy density.

And if you notice, it has a similar amount of mass to what the liquid air thermal rocket calculation I found before.

Thus, I’m assuming I would require around 16 to 33 megajoules of input energy in the thermal rocket in order to generate 5000 kg of thrust in bursts/detonations just like the tank. Maybe like a rotating detonation engine.

Since the tank barrel has 500 to 700 MPa of pressure, you would need 16 to 23 parallel pressure tanks with 30 MPa of internal pressure releasing 5 kg/liters of liquid air in order to keep the equivalent mass flow. (I think)

I asked again:

“To achieve the same thrust of 5 tons (approximately 49,033 Newtons) with a cold gas thruster operating at a lower pressure of 30 MPa, you'll need to adjust the mass flow rate of the propellant accordingly.

Thrust Equation:

The thrust (𝐹) produced by a cold gas thruster is given by:

F=m˙ * ve

where:

m˙ is the mass flow rate of the propellant (kg/s)

ve is the exhaust velocity of the propellant (m/s)

Exhaust Velocity and Pressure Relationship: 

The exhaust velocity ( 𝑣 𝑒 v e ) is influenced by the chamber pressure ( 𝑃 𝑐 P c ) and can be approximated for an ideal gas expanding isentropically through a nozzle:

where:

γ is the specific heat ratio of the gas

R is the universal gas constant

Tc is the chamber temperature (K)

M is the molar mass of the gas

Pe is the exit pressure (Pa)

Pc is the chamber pressure (Pa)

Assuming the exit pressure ( 𝑃 𝑒 P e ) is much lower than the chamber pressure ( 𝑃 𝑐 P c ), the term ( 𝑃 𝑒 𝑃 𝑐 ) 𝛾 − 1 𝛾 ( P c P e ) γ γ−1 becomes negligible, simplifying the equation to:

This shows that 𝑣 𝑒 v e is proportional to the square root of the chamber temperature ( 𝑇 𝑐 T c ).

Mass Flow Rate Adjustment:

Given that the thrust is directly proportional to both the mass flow rate and the exhaust velocity, and assuming the exhaust velocity decreases with the square root of the pressure drop (since temperature and pressure are related in an ideal gas), reducing the pressure from 500-700 MPa to 30 MPa would decrease the exhaust velocity. To maintain the same thrust, the mass flow rate must increase proportionally.

If the original system uses 5 kilograms of liquid gas to produce 5 tons of thrust at 500-700 MPa, and you're reducing the pressure to 30 MPa (which is approximately 1/20th of the original pressure), the exhaust velocity would decrease by a factor of about √20 (since 𝑣 𝑒 ∝ 𝑃 𝑐 v e ∝ √P c ). Therefore, to maintain the same thrust, the mass flow rate would need to increase by the same factor, √20 , which is approximately 4.47.

Thus, you'd need approximately 4.47 times more propellant:

5kg×4.47≈22.35kg

Therefore, you'd require approximately 22.35 kilograms of liquid gas at 30 MPa to achieve the same 5-ton thrust.

Note: This is a simplified estimation. In practice, factors such as nozzle design, gas properties, and thermodynamic efficiencies would influence the exact amount of propellant required.”

This is a similar value to that of the hydrolysis rocket…

(btw, chatgpt said that the tank gun would have 50 seconds of specific impulse based on gunpowder rockets)

That assumes that 70% of the energy is transferred to the barrel recoil, since around 30% of the energy of the gunpowder is transferred to the projectile.

Even if it was 90% or more (95%), it would still require some substantial amount of joules. Around 10 to 25 megajoules (1 megajoule = 1,000,000 joules).

Since I couldn’t find a way of designing and calculating it, I asked for already existing rocket engines so I can copy:

“Liquid rocket engines with thrusts ranging from 1,000 kgf to 5,000 kgf (approximately 9.8 kN to 49 kN) are commonly used in various aerospace applications, including upper-stage propulsion and spacecraft maneuvering. Below are some examples of such engines, along with their key specifications:

S5.80: A liquid pressure-fed rocket engine developed by the Soviet Union (now Russia) for spacecraft propulsion. It burns unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) with an oxidizer-to-fuel ratio of 1.85. The engine generates a vacuum thrust of 2.95 kN, with a chamber pressure of 0.88 MPa. It has a specific impulse of 302 seconds in vacuum and a dry weight of 310 kg. The engine is 1.2 m in length and 2.1 m in diameter. S5.80 - Wikipedia

RD-843: A one-chamber, multi-start pressurized fuel feed rocket engine developed by the Yuzhny Mashinbuilding Plant. It produces a vacuum thrust of 250 kgf and has a specific impulse of 315.5 seconds. The engine weighs approximately 15.93 kg and is designed for multiple restarts during flight. Liquid rocket engine RD-843 – Production Association Yuzhny Mashinbuilding Plant 

L75: Developed by the Instituto de Aeronáutica e Espaço (IAE) in Brazil, the L75 engine is designed to provide 75 kN (approximately 7,650 kgf) of nominal thrust in vacuum. It operates with a mixture ratio between 1.50 and 1.95 and has a combustion chamber pressure ranging from 5 to 7 MPa. The engine uses liquid oxygen (LOx) and ethanol as propellants. Development Status of L75: A Brazilian Liquid Propellant Rocket Engine 

Laika: An experimental sounding rocket developed by the Michigan Aeronautical Science Association (MASA). It employs a liquid bipropellant engine using nitrous oxide and 95% ethanol. The engine produces a nominal thrust of 3,780 N (approximately 385 kgf) and has a specific impulse of 215 seconds. The total vehicle mass is 96 lbs (approximately 43.5 kg). Laika Liquid Bipropellant Rocket | MASA - Taking Michigan to Space 

RD-171: A powerful liquid-fuel rocket engine with four combustion chambers, each producing 1,000 kN of thrust, totaling 4,000 kN. It operates at a chamber pressure of 24.52 MPa and has a specific impulse of 338 seconds in vacuum. The engine's dimensions are 2.5 meters in length and 1.5 meters in diameter, with a dry weight of 9,750 kg. RD-170 - Wikipedia 

RL10: A liquid-fuel cryogenic rocket engine that burns liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. Modern versions produce up to 110 kN of thrust in vacuum. The engine operates at a chamber pressure of approximately 1.5 MPa and has a specific impulse ranging from 373 to 453 seconds in vacuum. Its mass is approximately 131 kg. RL10 - Wikipedia  

Rocketdyne LR101: A regeneratively cooled engine using liquid oxygen (LOX) and kerosene, producing around 4,450 N (1,000 lbf) of thrust. It operates at a chamber pressure of approximately 2.8 MPa and has a specific impulse (Iₛₚ) of about 249 seconds at sea level. The engine's dimensions are a chamber diameter of 69.3 mm, a throat diameter of 41.3 mm, and a nozzle exit diameter of 93.3 mm. Its dry weight is approximately 45 kg. 1000lb Thrust LOX-Kerosene Rocket Design 

Rocketdyne H-1: Thrust: 2,200 lbf (9.8 kN) Combustion Chamber Pressure: 633 psi (4.4 MPa) Specific Impulse: 289 s Mass Flow: 2,092 US gallons/min (132 L/s) of RP-1; 3,330 US gallons/min (210 L/s) of LOX Size and Weight: Inboard Engine: 1,830 lb (830 kg) dry weight Outboard Engine: 2,100 lb (950 kg) dry weight Usage: Used in clusters of eight on the first stages of the Saturn I and Saturn IB rockets. Rocketdyne H-1 - Wikipedia 

Rocketdyne F-1: Regarding the liquid fuel rocket engines used in the Apollo missions that sent humans to the Moon, the primary engine was the Rocketdyne F-1. This engine powered the first stage of the Saturn V rocket, providing the necessary thrust to launch the Apollo spacecraft toward the Moon. 

Rocketdyne F-1 - Wikipedia 

For a more detailed overview of the Saturn V rocket engines, you might find the following video informative:

An Overview of the Saturn V Rocket Engines 

The idea is that I could search for these engines and find 3D models online, scale them up to the propulsion and pressure that I need and then make the necessary modifications.

Dunno how well that would work, but better than take a PHD on rocket science just to make a 3D model of a mech, lol.

PulseJet Propulsion:

A possible and practical approach is the use of pulsejets.

Pulsejet - Wikipedia

They are simple, light and practical and work with any kind of fuel, but are extremely inefficient. 5% maximum, everything being lost as heat and sound.

Maybe you could increase the efficiency if you used both the fuel and the air as coolants (like in a rocket engine), an air compressor, thermal insulating materials, ideal fuel to air ratios and perfect timing for the detonations.

Sources: Enhanced heat transfer and flow topology of hydrogen regenerative-cooling channels with novel X-shape ribs - ScienceDirect Liquid Rocket Engines - Ultramet 

Besides, you can make them in whatever shape you want (as long as the shapes are properly designed for sonic resonance, just like in the 2 stroke engines).

Expansion chamber - Wikipedia 

Valveless | Home Made Jet & Pulsejet Engine 

Crazy Rocketman testing really big 400 pound thrust Pulsejet engine! This guy has a website where he sells his blueprints for pulsejet engines, although I don’t have money to buy them… lol

Crazy Rocketman: Test running the "Super Dragon" 450 pound thrust Pulsejet Jet engine. 

New Rocketman show starting 2017 900lb thrust twin Pulsejet engine . 

Maddoxjets.com: 900 pound thrust Pulsejet engine. 

Cylindrical Tesla Valve Pulse Jet Engine (3D Printed) 

Full Throttle Test: Did we Push a Pulse Jet Engine to its Limits?! 

Experimental research on a rotary-valved air-breathing pulse detonation engine 

WE USED AN AUGMENTER ON OUR PULSE JET! 

This is in a Different Class Than a Raptor Engine! (Supposedly, if you stack pulsejets in a circular pattern and synchronize their firing sequence, you can make a rotating detonation engine, but I don’t know how well it would work since you are using the inefficient pulsejet)

Svarthålet Racing - Assembly of valve grid for pulse jet 

(PDF) Performance of an Actively Valved and Acoustically Resonant Pulse Combustor with Liquid Gasoline Fuel 

I was also wondering about mixing this with the idea of the turbineless jet engine, in which the entire compressor is a closed screw which I talked about in the Helium Thermal Engine section.

Essentially starting rotation and then the proper combustion chamber maintaining propulsion.

Source: Chinese scientists propose ram-rotor detonation engine for hypersonic flight | South China Morning Post 

Helical Blade Turbineless Gas Jet Engine 

Real life force/energy-fields:

Skip to the end of this section because the actual energy shield talk starts around there.

Before I talk about my idea, let’s talk about energy shields in real life:

US20170097212A1 - Electric reactive armour - Google Patents

US9897418B2 - Electric reactive armour - Google Patents 

How Electromagnetic Armor Vaporizes RPGs

Electromagnetic Reactive Armour 

They are described like a capacitor bank, but they are called electromagnetic…

The Genius Behind The First Force Field

Atomic Radiation

Not exactly bullet melting, but it is really cool nonetheless.

FORCE FIELDS: How Close are We?

How Close Are We to Building Force Fields? 

There is an anti-missile system in tanks that works kinda like a force-field.

The idea is that two conducted plates, one negative and other positive are separated by an insulating layer (the armor), once a missile or projectile pierces the two plates, the system is connected through the projectile. Vaporizing it before it can damage the tank.

Is there a way of doing the electrode connection through projectile wire wirelessly?

Without physical plates?

I genuinely don’t know, but if you find a solution, you can make force fields a reality.

The only idea I had that might work for every type of projectile (and work passively) would be:

(I’m no engineer and none of this might work)

To use electrostatic sensor antennas linked to an “energy emitter” array.

In essence, the electrostatic antennas would make an electrostatic field in which it would detect changes in the field, so even if the projectile is non-conductive or non-magnetic, the antennas would detect a change. That change would passively open the mosfets (or a similar conductive gate) connecting the capacitors to the “energy emitters” in that region and direction, emitting enough energy to vaporize the projectile.

In this hypothetical scenario I’m assuming that the field would be tuned to react to projectiles flying at specific speeds and on top of that, filter out all the noise (only god knows how hard that would be). I’m also assuming that conventional electromagnetic fields/radars wouldn’t detect non-conductive materials.

The “energy emitter” would be anything that can emit enough energy to vaporize the projectile.

For example:

• Lasers that directly target the projectile.
• Infrared Photon emitters (like incandescent light bulbs).
• Electro Lasers: multiple laser induced plasma channels are created in the direction of the projectile, once the projectile disrupts the channels, they will pass thousands of joules worth of electricity through the projectile. Working like electric arc furnaces.
• A mix of the three, a laser induced plasma channel in the shape of a cone is formed and the infrared photon emitter does its thing. The plasma would (probably, maybe) work like a mirror of the infrared light, focusing all of its heat in the projectile.

Well, in my quest to find a way of making energy bubbles in order to make a real life energy field I came to two ideas that seem kinda realistic to try.

If you make it out of solid materials, it will eventually look like swiss cheese and not work anymore, but you can't make it with pure energy because the laws of physics aren't that convenient.

So I thought on these two ideas:

• Ultrasonic waves would keep conductive spheres floating around the object you want to protect. Researchers create a sonic tractor beam with loudspeakers 
• Literally making unpoppable soap bubbles around the object. UNPOPPABLE BUBBLE SOLUTION (hold bubbles without bursting) 

In both cases the outside would be negatively charged and the inside would be positively charged.

But in the case of the sonic tractor beam, I don't think it would work, since the spheres would just keep rotating.

Well, I asked around if these ideas would have any possibility of working, and the few people that cared to consider them said it simply wouldn’t work.

And being honest, I agree with them.

The only solution would be to actually keep the discardable wire mesh panels as the electrodes.

Since you could simply make the system useless by using non-conductive projectiles, the discharge of energy should occur at the place where the plates are pierced, based on the size of the projectile, not when the projectile itself completes the system.

Also, I would add points of emission for the incandescent filament/infrared photon emitter, the discharge would power up the infrared emitter, melting the projectile with the emitted heat.

… Bruh, I just reinvented ERA. 😐

But the unpoppable bubbles are really cool, I do wonder if they could be useful for composite materials and the like. 

Extracting Strawberry DNA to make Massive Bubbles

The bubbles are harder to pop because of the molecular spaghetti that some polymers are.

Wouldn’t that be just like a fiber composite?

Making micro to nano fibers is really hard, but that could help the strength of composites, no?

… Or maybe I’m wrong, there are micro to nano sized needles.

Anyway, I used a Specific Heat Calculator and then used the weight of various different projectiles ranging from 9mm to 120mm armor piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS) tank rounds assuming everything is made out of tungsten (melting point around 3500ºC) and an efficiency of heat transfer around 10%.

So:

• 9mm weighs around 10 grams = 4,500 joules x 10% efficiency of energy transfer = 45,000 joules to melt it.
• Caliber 5.56 mm (common assault rifle caliber) weighs around 4 grams = 1800 joules x 10% efficiency = 18,000 joules to melt it.
• 50 .cal BMG weighs around 50 grams = 22,800 joules x 10% efficiency = 228,000 joules to melt it.
• 30×173mm caliber (A-10 warthog bullet) weighs around 500 grams = 228,000 joules x 10% efficiency = 2,280,000 joules to melt it.
• APFSDS M829A3 (120mm) weighs around 25kg = 12,000,000 joules x 10% efficiency = 120,000,000 joules are required to melt it.

Well, this is a defense system for all projectiles, explosives or kinetic, like armor-piercing rounds.

But if we are speaking solely on explosive rounds, why does no one ever use net guns, pellet shotgun shells or even metal umbrellas of some sort?

It wouldn’t have the range and precision of a phalanx system, but it sure would be cheap.

Actual energy shield:

Since there is non-thermal plasma, one could make a cold-plasma layer around an object, you can make some kind of real life energy shield that could activate (turn into thermal plasma) when needed. I tried to find plasma shells, plasma layers, plasma blankets, but nothing like a sphere around an object.

Nonthermal plasma - Wikipedia   

But how would you detect the presence of an object? 

I mean… You can use plasma both as a speaker and a microphone by detecting the disturbances in plasma.

Plasma speaker - Wikipedia 

Plasma Arc Microphones – Digilent Blog 

ChatGPT:

“Yes, plasma arcs can be utilized as sensors to detect objects passing through them and determine their position. This capability stems from the plasma's sensitivity to disturbances in its properties, such as voltage, current, and impedance, when an object interacts with it.

In plasma arc welding and cutting processes, monitoring systems detect changes in arc characteristics to maintain optimal operation. For instance, variations in arc voltage are used to control the torch height, ensuring consistent cutting quality. When an object or material disrupts the plasma arc, it alters the electrical properties, which can be measured to infer the object's presence and position. 

Additionally, in plasma chambers used for material processing, arc detection apparatuses monitor voltage and current ratios to identify disturbances. These systems can detect rapid changes indicative of an object interacting with the plasma, allowing for real-time adjustments to the process.“

Sources it listed:

Plasma arc cutting torch tracking control - J. Wang, K. Kusumoto, K. Nezu, 2001 

US9170295B2 - Method and apparatus for detecting arc in plasma chamber - Google Patents  

A switching arc plasma measurement experimental system using a magnetic sensor array

Use of the Plasma Spectrum RMS Signal for Arc-Welding Diagnostics 

Project Log 118: "Final" Project Log.28 2 days ago • 0 comments

They already do that, partially:

Divertor - Wikipedia

That’s why there are these weird shapes at the bottom.

If you can make it interact with matter, doesn't that mean that you could have cold plasma be manipulated like a hand made out of gas. Maybe like a ghost? lol

(scene from Hellboy 2)

I mean, you could make a literal cushion of cold plasma and maintain yourself floating like a hovercraft…

But I doubt it would be that easy to make something like this in real life…

If you can manipulate air with plasma like this, wouldn’t that mean that you could make a plasma driven jet engine?

Where instead of physical blades compressing and moving air, you’d have plasma blades doing it?

Wouldn’t that also be useful for supersonic and hypersonic propulsion?

Actually, no.

Its property of separating air from vacuum is based on its temperature, and without high temperature, it cannot be viscous.

Also I can’t find a single article making plasma windows using non-thermal plasma, so this is just my conjecture.

What is the viscosity of thermal plasma anyway?

ChatGPT:

“The viscosity of ion plasma windows varies based on factors such as gas type, temperature, and pressure. Generally, plasma viscosity increases with temperature. For instance, in a plasma window operating at approximately 12,000 K, the viscosity of argon plasma is about 2.42 × 10⁻⁴ Pa·s, which is ten times higher than that of argon at room temperature. 

This elevated viscosity significantly reduces gas flow through the plasma, enabling the plasma window to effectively separate regions of different pressures. The high viscosity, combined with the plasma's low density, allows the plasma window to withstand substantial pressure differentials while remaining transparent to charged particle beams. 

It's important to note that these values are specific to the conditions under which the plasma window operates and can vary with different configurations and applications.

The viscosity of ion plasma windows (typically in the range of 10−4to10−310−3Pa·s, or 0.0001 to 0.001 Pa·s) can be compared to the viscosities of other common fluids as follows:

Water (at 20°C):

Viscosity: 1 mPa·s (0.001 Pa·s) or 0.01 poise

Air (at 20°C):

Viscosity: 18.2 µPa·s (0.0000182 Pa·s) or 0.00018 poise

Honey (at 20°C):

Viscosity: 2,000 to 10,000 mPa·s (2-10 Pa·s) or 20-100 poise

Olive oil (at 20°C):

Viscosity: 80 mPa·s (0.08 Pa·s) or 0.8 poise

Glycerol (at 20°C):

Viscosity: 1,490 mPa·s (1.49 Pa·s) or 14.9 poise

Comparison:

Ion plasma window viscosity (0.0001 to 0.001 Pa·s) is much lower than that of liquids like honey, olive oil, or glycerol, which are highly viscous.

It is also lower than water's viscosity but still significantly higher than the viscosity of air.”

Sources: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1308.5524 https://www.techbriefs.com/component/content/article/1834-0598etb1?utm_source=chatgpt.com plasma-school.org/files/lectures/2016/Murphy16.pdf https://hydramotion.com/en/technical/units-of-viscosity 

Well… Kinda disappointing to be honest, I thought it would be way higher.

Anyway, what is the viscosity of non-equilibrium plasma at ambient pressure?

Transport Coefficients of Two-temperature Lithium Plasma for Space Propulsion Applications | Request PDF In this one it generally stays around 10^-5 and 10^-4 kc/m/s in this one.

Transport Properties of Non-Equilibrium Plasmas In this one it stays around 14 to 20 10^-5 kg/m.s.

Non-equilibrium synergistic effects in atmospheric pressure plasmas | Scientific Reports In this one I’m not very sure, but it uses S(mm²), so I’m assuming that it is viscosity, which varies from 100 to 240.

Now, how does that compare to thermal plasma?

“The viscosity of non-equilibrium plasma at ambient pressure can vary significantly based on several factors, including the type of gas, temperature, and the specific conditions of the plasma. Generally, the viscosity of non-equilibrium plasma is lower than that of thermal plasma.

Viscosity of Non-Equilibrium Plasma

Typical Range: The viscosity of non-equilibrium plasma is reported to be around 1 0 − 5 10 −5 to 1 0 − 4 10 −4 kg/m·s, which translates to 1 0 − 5 10 −5 to 1 0 − 4 10 −4 Pa·s

Specific Values: In some studies, the viscosity of non-equilibrium plasmas, such as lithium plasma, has been noted to stay around 14 × 1 0 − 5 14×10 −5 to 20 × 1 0 − 5 20×10 −5 kg/m·s

Viscosity of Thermal Plasma

High Temperatures: For thermal plasmas, such as argon plasma at approximately 12,000 K, the viscosity is significantly higher, measured at about 2.42 × 1 0 − 4 2.42×10 −4 Pa·s, which is roughly ten times higher than that of argon at room temperature

Comparison

To compare the viscosities: 

Non-Equilibrium Plasma Viscosity: Approximately 10−510−5to10−410−4Pa·s. Thermal Plasma Viscosity: Approximately 2.42 × 1 0 − 4 2.42×10 −4 Pa·s.

Percentage Comparison

To express the viscosity of non-equilibrium plasma as a percentage of thermal plasma viscosity:

If we take a representative value for non-equilibrium plasma viscosity as 2 × 1 0 − 4 2×10 −4 Pa·s (the upper limit), the comparison would be:

Percentage=(2.42×10−42×10−4)×100≈82.64>#/i###

Conversely, if we consider the lower limit of non-equilibrium plasma viscosity at 1 × 1 0 − 5 1×10 −5 Pa·s, the percentage would be:

Percentage=(2.42×10−41×10−5)×100≈4.13>#/i###

Thus, the viscosity of non-equilibrium plasma can range from about 4.13% to 82.64% of the viscosity of thermal plasma, depending on the specific conditions and values used for comparison.”

Sooooo…

Non-equilibrium plasma windows could work, but it will need to be verified on a basis to basis case.

I could find just two sources on the subject and they don’t work with oxygen or nitrogen (I mean, I think the second one doesn’t explore these gases, I can’t access it), so it is hard to say that this is conclusive.

But assuming it works: I don’t think it would be possible to make plasma shields that would stop any kind of projectile as a solid, but they could melt them. But you wouldn’t be able to make plasma windows that could interact with the things around you like telekinesis.

I tried again.

At ambient temperature and pressure argon gas has a viscosity of around 22 µPa·s, while nitrogen gas has 17 µPa·s and air has 18 µPa·s. Absolute (dynamic) viscosities of some common gases. 

In this article it says that the non-thermal argon plasma at ambient pressure has 25.2453 µPa·s of viscosity: Fluid Modeling of a Non-Thermal Plasma with Dielectric Barrier Discharge and Argon as a Diluent Gas

In this one says that non-thermal nitrogen plasma at atmospheric pressure achieved a maximum viscosity of around 25 10^-5 kg m^-1 s^-1, which is also 0.00025 or 25 µPa·s: Thermophysical properties of nitrogen plasmas under thermal equilibrium and non-equilibrium conditions 

In this article, although it doesn’t focuses on the viscosity of non-thermal air plasma, it shows a graph showing the viscosity of air-plasma at 1 atm based on temperature, which indicate that its viscosity is around 0.00003 kg/m-s = pascal second = 30 µPa·s: Density and dynamic viscosity of the air-based plasma at 1 atm. | Download Scientific Diagram 

Of course, the viscosity peaks at a certain 10,000 Kelvins and then starts to decline. But still, more viscous than ambient air.

While in this article it says that thermal argon and nitrogen plasma has 3 micropoise of viscosity, which is around 0.3 µPa·s: Argon and Nitrogen Plasma Viscosity Measurements 

In this one it is said to be around 0.3 µPa·s also, so I guess this value is accurate: Measurement of the Viscosity of Atmospheric Argon from 3500 to 8500°K 

In this one, at ambient pressure, the viscosity of thermal air plasma is around 25 µPa·s: (PDF) Calculation of air-water vapor mixtures thermal plasmas transport coefficients 

This means that non-thermal plasmas have in fact viscosities higher than gases at ambient pressure.

However, the difference is really small and I don’t know how well it would work since thermal plasmas can have 10 times more viscosity than gas at 10,000 kelvin.

So, non-thermal plasmas windows have around 15% to 20% the viscosity of thermal plasma windows.

So, assuming that thermal plasma can separate up to 9 bars of pressure difference, non-thermal plasma would be able to separate 1.8 bar of atmosphere difference.

Plasma window - Wikipedia 

If thermal plasma can only separate 1 bar of pressure difference, then non-thermal plasma can only separate 0.2 bars.

If you take the cross-section area of a M1 Abrams tank (30 m²), it would be able to sustain 60 tons of weight (the Abrams weighs 70 tons).

I mean, assuming that the growth of viscosity is linear and that it linearly stops the atmospheric pressure difference linearly.

It would be better to have a graph for this, but I couldn’t find any…

But maybe you could make a solid state jet engine that accelerates air with plasma windows due to its viscosity.

It can support up to 5 bar of pressure difference, right?

So you could make as many parallel tubes as possible and as long as possible in order to accelerate air pockets as much as possible.

Each generating 1 to 5 bar of thrust (I think).

1 bar = 1 atm = 1 kilogram force per square centimeter x 5 bar = 5 kgf/cm².

 

One thing that may or may not be interesting:

Some while ago I remember seeing somewhere (ChatGPT probably) that there were ideas on exploring artificial black holes and/or warp drives by making incredibly strong magnetic fields.

The idea was to pump a spiral crystal/glass with a really strong laser in order to make a magnetic field with hundreds of teslas.

After all, electromagnetic radiation is still electromagnetic to some capacity, no?

Maybe you could make a continuously operated strong magnetic field using this, since you wouldn’t need to use windings made out of copper or aluminum.

No, I was wrong, it definitely does not work like that.

Researching | Generation of strong magnetic fields with a laser-driven coil

HEDS | Laser driven coils; how well do they work?

Laser-driven coils, how well do they work?

Generation, measurement, and modeling of strong magnetic fields generated by laser-driven micro coils | Reviews of Modern Plasma Physics 

From what I could understand, a super strong laser pulse is applied to a metal surface. Once the laser hits it, it rips off the electrons from the target, which hits another target, working like one of those Newton’s Cradle toys. But instead of pushing metal spheres, it is pushing the atom's electrons, generating an electromagnetic wave, since that’s more or less how electricity works (if I’m not soundly mistaken).

ChatGPT said it works by using heat, since heat generates the flow of electrons, such as the seebeck effect.

It seems there are other approaches that directly use lasers to generate strong magnetic fields, but these are normally microscopic and complex.

A new idea for rapid generation of strong magnetic fields using laser pulses

'Radiation friction' could make huge magnetic fields with lasers – Physics World 

Wouldn’t that be useful for tokamak fusion reactors either way?

Generating magnetic fields using lasers would allow for lighter and more compact approaches, no?

… Which makes me wonder if they would work for electric motors also…

Now that I think of it³… Wouldn’t it be possible to use cold plasma to work in a pneumatic system?

So you could make an air compressor with no moving parts that compresses cold plasma?

Now that I think of it⁴… Since cold plasma is normally used for sterilization and to make chemical reactions more easily due to the fact that it is a cloud of free electrons, wouldn’t that mean that you could use it as a catalyst in Fuel Cells?

Catalysts in fuel cells are normally made out of really expensive materials such as palladium, platinum, cobalt, nickel, titanium etc.

This would work just like catalytic condensers, which promised to act like that for cheaper catalysts, but I never could find any information on the subject of Fuel Cells…

(PDF) Conversion of CO 2 by non- thermal inductively-coupled plasma catalysis  

Now that I think of it⁵… Since plasma/non-thermal plasma can be used for optics, lenses and the like, wouldn’t that mean it could also be used for “invisibility” fields?

Hmmmmmmmm… No.

As much as I am stocked for the infinite possibilities of using non-thermal plasma, I don’t think that in this case it would be possible to do that to visible light.

Source: Plasma mirrors - IRAMIS 

Although I was thinking of using plasma to distort the light around a bubble, in practice it wouldn’t be much different than a plasma display (plasma TV).

Plasma display - Wikipedia 

In any manner, the subject is really interesting:

https://youtu.be/_miP7-VrIXU

https://youtu.be/7W5T-qOQF50

 This Cloaking Device Actually Works!

4 Ways To Make Yourself Invisible 

This Invisibility Cloth Makes You Invisible in Pictures 

PSW 2385 Invisibility Cloaks and Other “Impossible” Optics | David R. Smith 

Metamaterials and the Science of Invisibility — Prof. John Pendry 

The physics of invisibility | Royal Society

Autonomous aeroamphibious invisibility cloak with stochastic-evolution learning

Experiments on cloaking in optics, thermodynamics and mechanics | Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

Plasma stealth - Wikipedia  

Anyway, I feel that I didn’t actually efficiently try to find a better solution to ion thrusters.

(I will add everything that I could find on the subject, but I don’t think many of these are even that useful, since they don’t intend on accelerating the plasma in atmospheric air breathing thrusters)

Wikipedia: Ion thruster - Wikipedia 

“Ion thrusters in operation typically consume 1–7 kW of power, have exhaust velocities around 20–50 km/s (Isp 2000–5000 s), and possess thrusts of 25–250 mN and a propulsive efficiency 65–80%[3][4] though experimental versions have achieved 100 kW (130 hp), 5 N (1.1 lbf).[5]”

This is extremely disconcerting and demotivating, but I don’t know, maybe it could work in the atmosphere, just like ion lifters/ionocrafts also work.

Ion-propelled aircraft - Wikipedia

Plasma actuator - Wikipedia

Designing A Self Propelling Ionic Thrust Wing

The Next Generation of Ionic Plasma Thrusters (BSI MARK 2) 

By the way, the rotors in helicopters are said to have 60% efficiency and airplane wings more or less 50%.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter_rotor

How much of an airplane's forward energy is lost to lift? - Aviation Stack Exchange 

My first thought would be to use a laval nozzle, but that one is used to turn low speed high pressure flow into high speed low pressure flow.

If this non-equilibrium air breathing atmospheric plasma thruster (NEABAPT) reaches high speed and low pressure, don’t see a reason to apply it.

Why wouldn't plasma propulsion work within the atmosphere of the earth? 

“Plasma thrusters are monumentally energy-inefficient compared to turbojets and turbofans. This is not a temporary obstacle, but a fundamental property of the engine type, because they rely on accelerating the exhaust to very high speeds (like 10000+ meters per second). Therefore, these engines dump most of the energy they produce into the exhaust, and very little into the thing they are propelling.”

It seems that you might need it, actually.

Dunno if it would be more efficient to use a single reverse laval nozzle to make the air-jet reach the speeds normally seen in airplanes/helicopters or use a reverse laval nozzle then to a normal laval nozzle optimized to the thrust you want.

Source: Numerical Investigation on the Performance of Two-Throat Nozzle Ejectors with Different Mixing Chamber Structural Parameters 

I mean, do I really need to do this?

I “just” need to choke the movement of electrons and ions in order to give them as much strength/momentum as possible.

Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster - Wikipedia

Pulsed inductive thruster - Wikipedia

Electrodeless plasma thruster - Wikipedia

Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket - Wikipedia

Magnetohydrodynamics - Wikipedia 

Inductively coupled plasma - Wikipedia

I was wondering about the most efficient way of turning ambient air into plasma, so I asked WebGPT:

“Assessing the energy efficiency of various air ionization methods for generating non-equilibrium plasma is crucial for their practical application. Here's an overview of the efficiencies associated with each method:

High-Voltage Nanosecond Pulsed Discharges (HVNPD): These discharges deliver rapid, high-voltage pulses, producing energetic electrons that ionize air molecules. This method effectively ionizes air without significantly heating the gas, leading to efficient energy use. However, specific numerical efficiency values are not readily available in the literature.

Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD): DBD operates by applying high voltage across electrodes separated by a dielectric barrier, creating micro-discharges that ionize the air. While DBD is effective for generating non-equilibrium plasma at atmospheric pressure, its energy efficiency varies based on design and operating conditions. For instance, studies on CO₂ conversion using DBD have reported energy efficiencies up to 23% under specific conditions. 

Piezoelectric Direct Discharge (PDD) Plasma: PDD utilizes a piezoelectric transformer to generate high-voltage AC discharges, producing cold plasma efficiently. The efficiency of plasma generation in PDD systems can reach up to 90>#/i###, with the remaining energy lost due to mechanical and dielectric heating of the transformer. 

Microwave-Induced Plasma: This method employs microwave energy to ionize air, creating plasma with high electron densities. It is particularly useful for applications requiring high-temperature plasmas and has demonstrated energy efficiencies up to 50>#/i###.

Radiofrequency (RF) ionization: RF plasma generation systems typically achieve energy efficiencies around 30%. For instance, magnetic nozzle RF plasma thrusters have demonstrated thruster efficiencies of about 30%, the highest recorded for this type of thruster.

Piezoelectric transformers are 88% efficient and conventional AC transformers are 97% efficient, so I don’t think that the electrical discharge specifically generated by piezoelectric would be that much different, no?

What is the most efficient way to ionize air? - Engineering Stack Exchange

Build Your Own Class-E Musical Tesla Coil | Hackaday 

Piezoelectric direct discharge plasma 

Modeling and analysis of dual-output piezoelectric transformer operating at thickness-shear vibration mode

(PDF) Power Density of Piezoelectric Transformers Improved Using a Contact Heat Transfer Structure

“Piezoelectric direct discharge (PDD) plasma is a method of generating cold, non-equilibrium plasma using a piezoelectric transformer. This approach is noted for its compactness, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness, with plasma generation efficiencies reaching up to 90%. 

Regarding transformer efficiencies, piezoelectric transformers typically achieve efficiencies between 82% and 92%, depending on design and operating conditions. 

In contrast, conventional electromagnetic transformers can reach efficiencies up to 97%.

The high efficiency of PDD plasma generation is not solely due to the transformer's efficiency but also to the direct integration of the high-voltage generation and discharge mechanisms. This integration minimizes energy losses associated with external high-voltage cabling and components, which are common in traditional plasma generation methods. By reducing these ancillary losses, PDD systems can achieve overall higher efficiencies in plasma generation, despite the piezoelectric transformer itself having a slightly lower efficiency compared to conventional transformers. 

In summary, while piezoelectric transformers may have lower efficiency compared to conventional transformers, the design of PDD systems allows for minimized energy losses in other areas, resulting in high overall efficiency in air ionization and plasma generation.”

Sources: Piezoelectric direct discharge plasma - Wikipedia

Fundamental Limits On Energy Transfer And Circuit Considerations For Piezoelectric Transformers 

Scaling Up of Non-Thermal Gliding Arc Plasma Systems for Industrial Applications

This one achieved 80-90% plasma arc efficiency.

Yes, I’m aware that high voltage discharges can erode electrodes, especially based on their amperage.

But instead of simply increasing the amperage, you could add the amount of electrodes. Example, if one needle electrode uses 1 watts (or even less), then add parallel electrodes until the desired power rating is achieved.

Another idea would be to have a single high voltage low wattage generator to distribute the discharge to all electrodes and then using a secondary conventional high amperage generator with a single-way diode to distribute the current to the electrodes. So you could control the amount of current the electrodes would receive without the risk of lethal discharges.

Think of it like a vacuum ejector, but using electricity.

I mean, I THINK it would work like that, I’m not an electrical engineer, and thus, I’m probably really wrong.

I asked ChatGPT:

“Let's say that I have 2 wires in parallel converging in a single one. One of the wires has 100 volts and 1 watt of power while the other has 100 amps and 100 watts. What will be the resulting voltage and amperage in the converging wire?”

Its answer:

“When connecting two components in parallel, the voltage across both components must be the same. However, in this scenario, the two wires have different voltages (100 V and 1 V), which makes a direct parallel connection problematic. In practical electrical systems, connecting sources with significantly different voltages in parallel can lead to circuit faults, potential damage, or safety hazards due to the large potential difference.

Using diodes to connect two voltage sources in parallel is a common technique known as "diode ORing." This method allows the higher voltage source to supply power to the load while preventing current from flowing back into the lower voltage source. 

Understanding Diode ORing:

In a diode ORing configuration, each voltage source is connected to the load through a diode. The diodes ensure that only the source with the higher voltage supplies power to the load, as the diode connected to the lower voltage source will be reverse-biased and thus block current flow. This setup provides automatic selection of the input source without manual intervention. 

When implementing diode ORing, the source with the higher voltage (in this case, 100 volts) will dominate and supply power to the load. The diode connected to the 1-volt source will be reverse-biased due to the higher voltage from Source 1 and will prevent current from that source from reaching the load.”

So, in other words: it wouldn’t work.

I would need to apply the extra amperage directly into the source.

But now I wonder: the article in question used 50-60 hertz AC to generate an arc plasma with 90%, but what if you increased the frequency to microwave frequency or radiofrequency of this arc plasma generator?

It is still a direct discharge, it is still an AC, but the frequency is increased. How would that affect the air ionization?

The Impact of Radio Frequency Waves on the Plasma Density in the Tokamak Edge 

“It is found that the density in front of a radio frequency antenna is affected by the presence of the launched electromagnetic waves: the plasma is pushed away from the antenna and a density asymmetry along the strap is created. Both effects are gradually more pronounced when the launched power is bigger.”

How do arcs generate radio-frequency - Electrical Engineering Stack Exchange 

“A circuit with an electric arc in it is actually (well, usually) a 'relaxation oscillator'...”

“...Each discharge in the cycle is very rapid, making broadband RF pulses, as stated in other answers.”

How can radio radiation ionize gases? - Physics Stack Exchange

“The way this actually works to generate a plasma is to make electrons dance. As the polarity of the RF source switches, an electron will feel an electric (or magnetic - either will work, just different configurations) field that pulls it first one way, then another. The amount of acceleration that the electron can pick up during each oscillation is determined by the voltage for any given frequency - higher voltage, faster electron, more energy added to the gas. Free electrons in the gas will hit neutral molecules, and if you make the oscillation voltage high enough, eventually those collisions start to happen with enough energy to knock electrons off the neutrals, and create more ions. There are some factors that impact the rate of ionization, such as recombination, energy absorption into the plasma, and energy loss through de-excitation (light emission) and thermal collisions, but fundamentally if you keep pumping in power from these RF oscillations, and the voltage is sufficient, you will end up with a lot of free electrons, which will maintain a very highly ionized plasma.” 

ChatGPT said that in this article efficiencies around 92% are reached: Highly efficient plasma generation in inductively coupled plasmas using a parallel capacitor But I can’t access it, not even through Sci-hub. 

Effect of an additional floating electrode on radio frequency cross-field atmospheric pressure plasma jet - PMC

In this article it is explored how to control the amount of negative and positive ions within plasma using free electrodes which can be interesting for the application of electrets.

Highly efficient plasma generation in inductively coupled plasmas using a parallel capacitor | Request PDF 

“At the resonance, the source has a larger total equivalent resistance that is 3–18 times larger than that at the non-resonance. As the resistance increases at the fixed RF power, the RF current decreases accordingly, which indicates that the power loss in the powered antenna including the impedance matching circuits is significantly reduced. The experimental result shows that the power transfer efficiency is improved by about 30%–70% and the plasma density at the resonance increases 2–8 times higher than that at the non-resonance.”

It is 70% maximum efficiency or 70% of 20% efficiency?

https://www.thierry-corp.com/plasma-knowledgebase/plasma-frequencies 

“40 kHz is the lowest of the Plasma Frequencies. Though it may sound the weakest, a low frequency can make the biggest difference in quality.  At 40 kHz, there is the highest ion density of the three main frequencies meaning that there will be more particles of the plasma per square inch than the other two. This will easily increase the efficiency and improve the uniformity of the particles. Although it might be the slowest to etch materials, it will be the best in quality.

In the middle we have the frequency 13.56 MHz. One of the standard frequencies used world wide for industrial, scientific, and medical uses.  This frequency is used for a faster etching process, but has to be fine tuned for each piece of material that would be placed in the chamber.

Lastly there is the 2.45 GHz frequency. This is the fastest setting to do any etching, but will require the most energy to operate.”

So the lower the frequency, the more efficient, right?

But what is the ideal frequency of an arc plasma generator?

Well, WebGPT didn’t tell anything useful, with the exception of one bit:

“2. Plasma Stability

At higher frequencies, the plasma arc can become more stable because the current oscillates too quickly for the plasma to extinguish between cycles. This improves efficiency and reduces sputtering or instability in the arc.”

Well then, a good approach to help solve this issue would be to use 3 phase AC, no?

On the efficiency of gas heating by a three-phase ac sliding arc plasma generator | Journal of Engineering Physics and Thermophysics

A new electro-burner concept for biomass and waste combustion

Investigation of parameters of the three phase high-voltage alternating current plasma generator with power up to 100 kW working on steam   

Application-oriented non-thermal plasma in chemical reaction engineering: A review - ScienceDirect

“3.1.2. Temporal restriction

The temporal scale is usually directly controlled via the frequency of applied electric potential. DC, pulsed DC, AC, radio frequency (RF) and microwave sources can be and have been used to excite microplasmas in various configurations. Simple DC plasmas can have inherent pulsing frequencies in the range of 1∼1000 Hz, but most electrically generated plasma studies that discuss pulsing frequency do so in the context of applied pulse frequency modulation (Fridman and Kennedy, 2021). The energy efficiency of DC microplasma with nanosecond pulses is much higher than that of the regular DC operation (Schoenbach and Zhu, 2012). Fig. 9 illustrates the reduction of the electrostatic potential at 1 torr as frequency increases (Xue and Hopwood, 2009).”

Non-Thermal Atmospheric Pressure Plasma - ScienceDirect

6x10^13 = 60,000,000,000,000 = 60 terahertz.

I tried to find ways of making terahertz pulses, but for the life of me I can’t.

Every source says that the terahertz frequency is the frequency of optical light, supposedly, you can’t make a terahertz arc discharge system.

Terahertz radiation - Wikipedia 

Yet, there it is, in plain picture.

In any manner, I was wondering if I could use a similar process used in slow motion cameras.

Certain slow motion cameras actually work at a limited frame rate (around 30 frames per second), so what they do is synchronize multiple cameras so the frames align in-between each other.

So, maybe you could have multiple pulsed DC or AC sources pulsating at whatever frequency, but always synchronizing each single one so they pulse in between each other pulses.

But that sounds like 3 phase current, and all of the waves are together.

Terahertz annular antenna driven with a short intense laser pulse 

This article uses laser driven coils to reach terahertz

Maybe I’m overthinking it, capacitors can release pulses of energy in the picoseconds to femtoseconds.

So a terahertz (or higher) frequency using capacitors synchronized for pico to femtosecond pulses would be able to achieve such frequencies, no?

DeepSeek (the better chinese GPT) said the following:

“Your question touches on an intriguing intersection of capacitor-based pulse generation and terahertz (THz) frequency production. Let’s break down the key points and address them systematically:

1. Terahertz Frequencies: Optical vs. Electrical Methods

Terahertz waves (0.1–10 THz) straddle the boundary between microwave and infrared regions. While optical methods dominate THz generation (e.g., nonlinear frequency conversion in crystals like PPLN or photoconductive antennas excited by femtosecond lasers)3 12, electrical methods involving capacitors or circuits face challenges due to inherent physical limitations:

Capacitor Limitations: Traditional capacitors in circuits are constrained by their RC time constants. For example, generating 1 THz (period = 1 ps) would require sub-picosecond charging/discharging, which is difficult to achieve with conventional components due to parasitic inductance/resistance and material response times12.

Plasma-Based THz: The dielectric barrier discharge plasma you mentioned (60 THz) operates via non-thermal electron acceleration in ionized gas, not capacitor discharge alone. Such plasmas generate THz through rapid electron collisions and transient electric fields, which are distinct from capacitor-driven circuits12.

2. Capacitors in Advanced THz Systems

Recent advancements in metamaterials and waveguide structures suggest capacitors can play a role in THz systems, albeit indirectly:

Waveguide Metatronics: Researchers have engineered negative capacitors and inductors in waveguides by exploiting structural dispersion. These "meta-elements" enable wideband impedance matching and THz signal manipulation, achieving >40% bandwidth enhancement in experiments. For instance, dielectric slabs in waveguides mimic lumped elements, allowing THz circuits to operate at subwavelength scales1.

Ultrafast Switching: Capacitors synchronized for picosecond/femtosecond pulses could theoretically generate THz frequencies if paired with nanostructured materials (e.g., graphene or resonant tunneling diodes). For example, RTD-based emitters already achieve THz oscillations via quantum tunneling effects, bypassing traditional RC limitations12.

3. Practical Feasibility of Capacitor-Driven THz

While capacitors alone are unlikely to generate THz frequencies directly, hybrid approaches show promise:

Photoconductive Switches: These devices use ultrafast laser pulses to trigger capacitor-like discharges in semiconductors (e.g., GaAs), producing THz pulses. The laser excites carriers, creating a transient current that radiates THz waves—a process combining optical excitation and capacitive discharge3 12.

Plasma-Assisted Systems: Capacitors could drive pulsed plasmas (as in dielectric barrier discharges), where rapid electric field changes induce THz emission. However, this relies on plasma dynamics rather than pure capacitor discharge12.

4. Key Challenges

Material Response: Even with femtosecond pulses, dielectric materials in capacitors exhibit finite polarization/relaxation times, limiting THz efficiency12.

Losses: Ohmic losses and radiative inefficiencies degrade high-frequency signals in conventional circuits1.

Scalability: Integrating nanoscale capacitors (e.g., in metamaterials) requires precision fabrication, which remains technically demanding1 13.”

Influence of Pulse Amplitude and Frequency on Plasma Properties of a Pulsed Low-Current High-Voltage Discharge Operated at Atmospheric Pressure 

“Depending on the operating frequency, a pure nitrogen discharge with an input power of about 650 W displays an electron density between 1.7×1021m−3 and 2.0×1021m−3 with electron temperatures in the range of 40,000 K and heavy particle temperatures of about 6000 K in the core of the discharge channel. Furthermore, a relatively slow electron recombination rate in the range of 20 µs is observed.”

“5. Conclusions

The main objective of this work has been to experimentally determine the influence of different operating conditions, i.e., pulse frequencies and pulse current amplitudes, on the relevant plasma parameters, in particular the electron number density and the electron temperature of a pulsed low-current, high-voltage discharge operated at atmospheric pressure. No information on these values could be found in published works so far. According to these results, depending on the operating frequency, an electron density between 1.7×1021m−3 and 2.0×1021m−3 with electron temperatures in the range of 40,000K can be expected for a pure nitrogen discharge operated at atmospheric pressure. A heavy particle temperature of about 6000K is reached in the core of the discharge channel, with the values decreasing further downstream on the axis of the effluent plasma jet from 4000K to 2000K at typical treatment distances of 10–15mm from the nozzle outlet. Due to the complex nature of the de-excitation processes of nitrogen, relatively slow electron recombination rates are observed, and thus the once ionized channel does not extinguish between consecutive pulses at the considered pulse frequencies of 43kHz and 60kHz but rather undergoes a transition from a glow discharge to a spark with each current pulse. The observed influence of the temporal changes of the excitation current on the estimated plasma parameters is slightly less than 20%. Based on the obtained findings, the hypothesis that the temperature of heavy particles is determined by dissipated power, while the electron parameters, and therefore, to some extent, the chemical reactivity of the plasma, are defined by the shape of the excitation pulse could be confirmed for this type of discharge. Furthermore, a coupling of the pulse shape and frequency with the resulting plasma properties is now possible.”

Well, now I got even more confused, since the article using AC arc discharge already achieved 90% efficiency with 50-60 hertz, why then…?

Well, I found the answer, I went back to the article, checked the sources and none of them talk about the efficiency of the plasma arc.

… Or maybe not:

Source: Characterization of a dc atmospheric pressure normal glow discharge - IOPscience

0.4 milliamps x 340 volts = 0.136 watts 10 milliamps x 380 volts = 3.8 watts

I’m assuming that these are the values that were measured in the discharge, so if they added 0.136 watts and only got 0.136 watts, then there was some minimal loss, right?

“3.2. Current–voltage characteristics: Figure 4 is a plot of discharge voltage versus discharge current for electrode spacings between 20µm and 3 mm. Errors in the electrode spacing of ±5µm are due to thermal expansion of the wire and shortening of the gap at higher currents. Errors in current are ±20µA and errors in voltage are less than 5 V. These plots are for a stainless steel anode and cathode and with the upper wire electrode 0.8 mm in diameter as anode. The current was varied by changing the dc power supply voltage with a constant ballast resistor. Oscilloscope traces and Fourier power spectrums of the discharge current showed the current to be constant with no significant ac components other than a <1% 60 Hz noise (probably from the building) and a <0.1% ∼50 kHz signal. Over the range of currents shown all the discharges were similar in structure to those of figure 3.”

[2212.13065] Influence of pulse modulation frequency on helium RF atmospheric pressure plasma jet characteristics

“This work investigates the influence of pulse modulation frequency ranging from 50 Hz- 10 kHz on the helium RF atmospheric pressure plasma jet's fundamental characteristics. The impact of modulation frequency on plasma jet discharge behavior, geometrical variation, reactive species emission, and plasma parameters (gas temperature Tg, electron excitation temperature Texc, and electron density (ne) are studied using various diagnostics such as optical imaging, emission spectra, and thermal diagnostics. From the experiments, it is observed that operating the plasma jet at low pulse modulation frequencies (around 50 Hz) provides enhanced plasma dimensions, higher electron densities and greater optical emission from reactive species (viz., He I, O, OH, N2+, etc.) as compared to the higher modulation frequencies.” 

What is Duty Cycle? | Fluke

Now what gives? 

Well, in any manner: there is alternating current (AC), continuous current (DC) and pulsed continuous current (PDC).

The difference between AC and PDC is that the first alternates between positive and negative, while the second alternates from zero to positive.

In the specific case of this plasma thruster I’m proposing, where it uses air Arc Discharge Plasma, I do think it would be better to use pulsed DC currents.

AC currents are used for induction of the plasma state in the gas, while Arc Discharge generates the plasma state in the air through the distance between the electrodes. Which results in it being extremely reliant on the direction of the arc.

How Electricity Works - for visual learners How Electricity Actually Works  (relevant)

This image illustrates better how I intend to make the pulsed direct current.

You can also add other phases to the system, like the common 3 phase.

Well now I’m wondering how efficiently electromagnets move plasma.

WebGPT said that thermal or non-thermal plasmas are normally assumed to have the same magnetic permeability of vacuum (1), but when you try to calculate it, it is actually pretty complex:

Calculating the magnetic permeability of a known plasma - Physics Stack Exchange

Strong magnetic fields change how friction works in plasma - Michigan Engineering News 

In any manner, if the electromagnetic field doesn’t move plasma with much efficiency given it has a magnetic permeability of 1, this explains why most of the plasma thrusters rely on electrical discharge to move the ionized gas rather than electromagnetism.

Optimization of Plasma-Propelled Drone Performance Parameters 

“Electromagnetic fields are indeed effective in moving plasma, a principle utilized in various plasma thrusters. The magnetic permeability of plasma is generally considered equivalent to that of a vacuum (μ₀), simplifying certain analyses. However, the plasma's permittivity can vary, adding complexity to precise calculations. 

Plasma thrusters, such as Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thrusters, employ the Lorentz force—generated by the interaction between electric currents and magnetic fields—to accelerate ionized gas. This method can achieve efficiencies between 40% and 60%, with exhaust velocities up to 60 kilometers per second. 

Another example is the Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR), which uses radiofrequency power to ionize and heat the propellant, subsequently accelerating it through a magnetic nozzle. This design aims for high efficiency and specific impulse, with ongoing research to optimize its performance. 

Recent advancements have demonstrated significant improvements in efficiency. For instance, a magnetic nozzle radiofrequency plasma thruster (VASIMR) has achieved efficiencies approaching 20% in the kilowatt power range, marking a notable advancement in this technology. 

Efficiency Considerations:

Electrostatic Thrusters: They are known for high specific impulse but lower thrust. Their efficiency is influenced by factors such as ionization efficiency and grid losses.

Electromagnetic Thrusters: They can provide higher thrust levels and specific impulse. For instance, the VASIMR engine has demonstrated efficiencies approaching 70% with argon propellant at full power. “ 

(yes, it keeps giving contradicting information)

“The efficiency of different methods for accelerating plasma in plasma thrusters varies significantly based on the technology used. Here’s a summary of the efficiencies associated with each method:

1. Electricity Only

Efficiency: Traditional electric propulsion systems, such as gridded ion thrusters, typically achieve efficiencies in the range of 30% to 50%. However, some advanced designs may reach efficiencies slightly above this range under optimal conditions.

2. Electromagnets in Conjunction with Electric Fields

Efficiency: Hybrid systems that utilize both electric fields and magnetic fields, such as magnetic nozzle (MN) radiofrequency plasma thrusters, have shown significant improvements in efficiency. Recent advancements have achieved conversion efficiencies of around 30%, with ongoing research aiming to push this figure higher. Some studies indicate that efficiencies could potentially reach up to 50% or more as technology develops [1][3].

3. Electromagnets Alone

Efficiency: Systems that rely solely on electromagnets, such as magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thrusters, generally have lower efficiencies. These systems can achieve efficiencies in the range of 20% to 30%, but they often struggle with energy losses and require substantial electrical input to generate the necessary magnetic fields [1][3].

Summary

Electricity Only: 30% to 50>#/i###

Electromagnets + Electric Fields: Around 30% (potentially higher with advancements)

Electromagnets Alone: 20% to 30>#/i###

Overall, the most efficient method currently appears to be the combination of electromagnets and electric fields, particularly as research continues to improve these systems.”

Passive Gust Alleviation of a Flying-wing Aircraft by Analysis and Wind-tunnel Test of a Scaled Model in Dynamic Similarity 

https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/UF/E0/04/24/30/00001/jagdale_v.pdf 

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Application-of-a-Flexible-Wing-Modeling-and-Mass-Dorbath/b5a30d944d5679056f694b90d9f1af5875d8aa3f 

(PDF) Variable Geometry Wing-box: Towards a Robotic Morphing Wing 

Expanding mesh transforming fidget. 3D Printed Huge Flexible transforming and extendable Ball Fidget (as strange as it sounds, for some reason I thought of using a similar concept to this digit sphere for the morphing wings. Using the stressed skin/monocoque structure design, but the actuation system is always a problem for morphing wings…)

There are also magnus effect wings, normally they are meant to reduce the chances of flow separation in wings.

But I saw somewhere that adding flexible flaps (like feathers) to the top of the wings also does the same effect, but without much complication.

However, I was wondering about the possibility of mixing both for a cycloidal wing/propeller.

Sources: CN103434637A - Novel aerofoil by utilizing magnus effect - Google Patents How would a belt sander wing perform? - Aviation Stack Exchange EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF MAGNUS EFFECT OVER AN AIRCRAFT WING - pdfcoffee.com 

What are the advantages of a Spinning Wing (Magnus Effect) and why haven't any been commercially produced? (One of the comments suggests using cloth-propellers for the magnus effect for maximum lightness, the centrifugal forces would make them rigid) 

Bird-like wings could help drones keep stable in gusts - Michigan Engineering News 

Development of Deployable Wings for Small Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Using Compliant Mechanisms | Semantic Scholar

Sources: A Novel Propulsion System Based on Cycloidal Rotors coupled with Pair-wing for VTOL Aircrafts; Cyclo-Craft Research on Distributed Jet Blowing Wing Based on the Principle of Fan-Wing Vortex-Induced Lift and Thrust

For some reason this one gave me an odd sense of deja vu, as if I already posted this and someone made a lengthy comment explaining it to me…

The Genius of Cycloidal Propellers: Future of Flight? 

Cycloidal Rotor Airplane: The Cycloplane 

How a Voith Schneider or Cycloidal Drive Propulsion System Works 

Earth sized warp drive?

Well, for some reason I was wondering how much energy you would need to move the entire planet earth with a Warp Drive.

It is said that the Alcubierre drive would consume around 800kg of mass in energy to work.

But I couldn't find at what speed and the weight of the spacecraft these values translate to.

So I will assume it consumes that much energy to go 10 times at the speed of light and move a 5 ton ship.

Since 1 gram of weight converted into photons is around 300 megawatts, I will take 1/10 of the mass in energy. So, 80kg of mass into energy = 24 terawatts to move a 5 ton ship to 0.9 the speed of light.

So 24/5000 = 0.0048 terawatts per kilogram of weight.

So, how many watts would you need to move the entire planet earth at 0.9 speed of light?

ChatGPT said it would be 28,600,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 watts (28,600 yottawatts)

But it was (obviously) wrong because I looked online.

The earth weighs 6,750,000,000,000,000,000,000 kilograms or 6.75 sextillion.

So you would need 19,710,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 watts, or 19.7 nonillion watts or 19,7 Quettawatts.

The entire human civilization produces 172 Petawatts, or 172,000,000,000,000,000 watts.

So you would need 1.1459302e+14 times more energy to make that work, or 1,14 trillion times, or 114,593,020,000,000 times more energy than humanity produces on the entire planet.

Ironically, if you converted the Quettawatts into mass, you would get the weight of earth. You would need to sacrifice another earth just to make the warp jump, lol.

I was just wondering about it because of the movie “The Wandering Earth”, I thought the ion thrusters were a bit inefficient.

But I don’t know why I kept looking for answers tho.

Biomimetic Camera:

Biomimicry is really cool, but I started to look at biomimetic cameras/light sensors just to see if there was a way of making a camera without semiconductors.

A mechanical camera of sorts...

Sources: High resolution and sensitivity gamma camera with active septa. A first Monte Carlo study Development and evaluation of an EMCCD based gamma camera for preclinical SPECT Imaging 

Sources:

Advanced Biomimetic Multispectral Curved Compound Eye Camera for Aerial Multispectral Imaging in a Large Field of View 

Spherical Biomimetic Eyes with Nanowire Arrays: From design to application | IEEE Brain 

A bionic self-driven retinomorphic eye with ionogel photosynaptic retina | Nature Communications 

(PDF) Drosophila Compound Eye Composed of Curved Micro-Lens Array Using Direct Laser Writing 

(PDF) Bioinspired Artificial Eyes: Optic Components, Digital Cameras, and Visual Prostheses 

Feline eye–inspired artificial vision for enhanced camouflage breaking under diverse light conditions | Science Advances 

I asked chatgpt for suggestions and it was actually useful for once, lol.

For example, it suggested me using photovoltaic cells made from scratch (normally made from copper and copper oxide) and then to add a filter that only allows a certain wavelength/color to pass through.

Source: How to make solar cell / panel at home (Free energy from sunlight) 

How to make a solar panel at home diy 

Cricket: A Self-Powered Chirping Pixel 

Cricket: A Self-Powered Chirping Pixel 2024 

Now the issue is finding a way of making the filters.

What can I use to only allow red, blue or green to pass? And infrared? And ultraviolet?

“Color filters can be made from various materials that selectively absorb specific wavelengths of light while allowing others to pass through. Here are some common materials used for color filters:

1. Colored Glass

Description: Colored glass filters are made by adding metal oxides or other compounds to the glass during manufacturing. These additives determine the color of the glass and its ability to absorb certain wavelengths.

Example: A red glass filter will absorb blue and green wavelengths while allowing red wavelengths to pass through.

2. Plastic Filters

Description: Plastic filters, often made from polycarbonate or acrylic, can be dyed with specific colorants that absorb certain wavelengths. These filters are lightweight and can be produced in various colors.

Example: A blue plastic filter will absorb red and green light, transmitting primarily blue light.

3. Gel Filters

Description: Gel filters are made from thin sheets of colored plastic or gelatin. They are commonly used in photography and stage lighting.

Example: A yellow gel filter absorbs blue and green light, allowing yellow and red light to pass through.

4. Dyes and Pigments

Description: Certain dyes and pigments can be used to create filters that absorb specific wavelengths. These can be applied to various substrates, including glass and plastic.

Example: Anthocyanins, found in plants, can be used to create filters that absorb certain wavelengths of light, changing color based on the pH of the solution.

5. Optical Coatings

Description: Thin-film optical coatings can be applied to surfaces to create interference filters. These coatings can be engineered to reflect or transmit specific wavelengths based on their thickness and the materials used.

Example: A bandpass filter can be designed to transmit only a narrow range of wavelengths while blocking others.”

“To create effective color filters, you can use specific materials that absorb certain wavelengths of light. Here’s a detailed breakdown of the types of materials, their chemical compositions, and their availability:

1. Colored Glass

Metal Oxides: Common metal oxides used in colored glass include:

Cobalt Oxide (CoO): Produces blue glass.

Chromium Oxide (Cr2O3): Used for green glass.

Iron Oxide (Fe2O3): Can produce yellow to brown glass depending on concentration.

Manganese Dioxide (MnO2): Used to create purple glass.

Availability: These metal oxides are generally available from chemical suppliers and can be incorporated into glass during the manufacturing process.

2. Plastic Filters

Dyes: Common dyes used in plastic filters include:

Cyanine Dyes: Such as Cyanine 5, which absorbs in the near-infrared range.

Azo Dyes: These can be used to create red and yellow filters (e.g., C.I. Acid Red 1).

Phthalocyanine Dyes: Such as Copper Phthalocyanine, which produces a deep blue color.

Chemical Composition: For example, C.I. Acid Red 1 has the chemical formula C16H12N2O4S.

Availability: These dyes can be sourced from specialty chemical suppliers or online marketplaces.

3. Natural Dyes and Pigments

Examples:

Anthocyanins: Found in red cabbage and berries, these can produce a range of colors depending on pH.

Chlorophyll: Extracted from plants, it can be used for green filters.

Chemical Composition: Anthocyanins are glycosides of anthocyanidins, with varying structures depending on the source.

Availability: Natural dyes can often be extracted from plants or purchased from suppliers specializing in natural colorants.

4. Optical Coatings

Materials: Common materials for optical coatings include:

Silicon Dioxide (SiO2): Used for anti-reflective coatings.

Titanium Dioxide (TiO2): Often used in multilayer coatings for its high refractive index.

Application: These coatings are typically applied using vacuum deposition techniques.

Availability: Coating materials can be sourced from optical component manufacturers or specialty chemical suppliers.”

“To optimize the wavelength response of copper-copper oxide photovoltaic cells, it's important to understand the nature of light absorption in these materials and how to manipulate their properties to enhance performance across different parts of the solar spectrum, including near-infrared (NIR) and infrared (IR) wavelengths.

Understanding Wavelength Absorption

Current Absorption Characteristics:

Copper oxide (CuO) has a narrow bandgap of approximately 1.2 eV, which allows it to absorb visible light effectively, particularly in the range of 400 nm to 750 nm. However, it can also absorb some infrared light, although its efficiency in this range is typically lower compared to visible light [1].

Photovoltaic Cell Operation:

Photovoltaic cells do not exclusively react to visible light; they can also utilize ultraviolet (UV) and infrared light. The efficiency of absorption depends on the bandgap of the semiconductor material used. For copper oxide, while it is primarily effective in the visible spectrum, modifications can be made to enhance its response to IR light [2].

Strategies for Optimizing Wavelength Response

To shift the absorption characteristics of copper-copper oxide photovoltaic cells towards NIR and IR wavelengths, consider the following strategies:

Material Modification:

Doping: Introducing dopants into the copper oxide can alter its electronic properties and bandgap. For instance, doping with elements like aluminum or gallium can help tailor the bandgap to absorb longer wavelengths.

Alloying: Creating a composite material by combining CuO with other semiconductors that have a higher absorption range can broaden the spectrum of light the cell can utilize.

Structural Engineering:

Thin Film Techniques: Utilizing thin-film deposition methods can help control the thickness of the CuO layer, which can enhance light absorption at specific wavelengths. Thicker films may improve absorption of longer wavelengths due to increased interaction with the light [3].

Nanostructuring: Engineering the surface of the photovoltaic cell at the nanoscale (e.g., creating nanowires or nanoparticles) can enhance light trapping and increase the effective absorption area, particularly for IR light.

Photon Upconversion:

Implementing photon upconversion materials can convert lower-energy photons (like those in the NIR range) into higher-energy photons that can be absorbed by the CuO layer. This technique can significantly enhance the photocurrent generated under low-light conditions [3].

Optical Coatings:

Applying anti-reflective coatings or using materials that can selectively filter and enhance certain wavelengths can improve the overall efficiency of the solar panel by allowing more light to enter the cell.”

“To optimize a copper-copper oxide photovoltaic cell for specific wavelengths, such as infrared (IR) or ultraviolet (UV), you can consider several strategies. These strategies involve modifying the materials, structures, and properties of the photovoltaic cell to enhance its sensitivity to the desired wavelength range.

Strategies for Wavelength Optimization

Material Selection and Doping:

Doping with Different Elements: Introducing dopants can alter the bandgap of copper oxide (CuO or Cu2O), which can shift the absorption spectrum. For example, doping with elements like aluminum or gallium can help tailor the bandgap to be more responsive to UV light.

Using Different Copper Oxides: CuO and Cu2O have different bandgaps (CuO ~1.2 eV and Cu2O ~2.0 eV). Selecting the appropriate oxide based on the desired wavelength can enhance performance. Cu2O is more suitable for visible light, while CuO may be better for IR applications due to its narrower bandgap [1].

Thin Film Techniques:

Layering and Heterojunctions: Creating heterojunctions with other semiconductors (e.g., ZnO for UV or Si for IR) can improve the absorption of specific wavelengths. The interface between different materials can create a built-in electric field that enhances charge separation and collection [1].

Optimizing Thickness: The thickness of the copper oxide layer can be adjusted to optimize absorption for specific wavelengths. Thinner films may be more effective for UV light, while thicker films might be better for IR due to longer penetration depths [2].

Surface Modification:

Texturing the Surface: Modifying the surface to create microstructures can enhance light trapping and increase the effective absorption area for specific wavelengths. This can be particularly useful for enhancing UV absorption [2].

Coatings and Filters: Applying optical coatings or filters that selectively transmit UV or IR light can help focus the cell's response to the desired wavelength range. For instance, UV filters can block visible light while allowing UV light to pass through [2].

Utilizing Nanostructures:

Nanostructured Materials: Incorporating nanostructures (e.g., nanoparticles or nanowires) can enhance the optical properties of the photovoltaic cell. These structures can be engineered to resonate at specific wavelengths, improving absorption efficiency in the UV or IR range [2].

Temperature Control:

Operating Temperature: The performance of copper oxide photovoltaic cells can be influenced by temperature. Adjusting the operating temperature can shift the absorption characteristics, potentially enhancing sensitivity to IR light [1].”

You could also use Antennas to be used as pixels for electromagnetic waves, allowing you to see them.

This Camera Can SEE WiFi 

Tunable metamaterial - Wikipedia 

Advancements in tunable and multifunctional metamaterial absorbers: a comprehensive review of microwave to terahertz frequency range | Request PDF 

Although I think all of this to be fascinating, why has nobody ever done that before?

ChatGPT said that it is because copper tends to degrade over time. hum…

In any manner, I will need to make it using photolithography.

There are many tutorials on youtube, but most of them focus on silicon. You could use copper formate/acetate for copper deposition and convert copper into copper oxide with simple vinegar.

Simple formation of metal mirrors 

How to Oxidize Copper: Easy, Simple Methods 

The issue, however, is finding a way of depositing the individual filters.

Just like in conventional photolithography

There are other types of lithographies, like electron beam lithography.

Drawing Microscopic Patterns with Electrons Essentially, he used an electron microscope to make an electron beam lithography.

Electron Beam Lithography 

DIY Scanning Electron Microscope - Operation procedure 

 DIY Scanning Electron Microscope - Sources, Costs and References 

DIY Scanning Electron Microscope - Overview 

The World's Smallest Scanning Electron Microscope 

Maskless lithography - Wikipedia 

There are also a lot of other methods, using x-rays, UV radiation, proton beams, ion beams etc.

One interesting lithography method is using the Atomic force microscopy, that one where you use an atom-thin tip to rub against the surface of objects, allowing you to even see individual atoms.

Building a 3D Printed Atomic-Resolution Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) | DIY STM Explained

1,000,000x Magnification with Atomic Force Microscope

Espresso size Atomic Force Microscope driven by open-source XYZ nanopositioner: AFM probe switching

AFM (atomic force microscopy) LEGO | LAB na Estrada - Oficinas Incríveis    

Zyrus Etcher, STM Tip Fabricator 

Overview of Scanning Probe Lithography

Dynamic Scanning Probe Lithography | Resul Saritas

Thermal Scanning Probe Lithography – A Review

Dip Pen Nanolithography with Lipid Inks

Dip Pen Nanolithography

Guided Tour of Dip Pen Nanolithography      

Tutorials on photolithography:

Maskless Photolithography Stepper for Homemade Chips 

Creating Ultra-Fine Details in Titanium - 20 Micron Resolution 

DIY Scanning Laser Microscope (you can use the laser to make a laser lithography machine)

DIY Semiconductor Patterning 

I Made My Own Image Sensor! (And Digital Camera) (not lithography but interesting nevertheless)

Photolithography on Silicon with PCB Chemicals 

Maskless Photolithography with DLP Projector - 10um Feature Sizes 

"Z2" - Upgraded Homemade Silicon Chips 

Self-Assembly of Lithographically Patterned 3D Micro/Nanostructures 

Nanofabrication Techniques: Photolithography 

Recreating CIA Technology Was Surprisingly Easy (Microdots) 

Speedrunning 30yrs of lithography technology 

Lithography on ceramics using pronto plate 

The Philosophy of Comedy | Henri Bergson 

DIY Photolithography using 1980s Carl Zeiss S-Planar Lens (405nm) 

DIY Semiconductor Patterning 

Photomasks Explained (Contact and Projection): how to etch Thin Chromium Layers 

Just print a PCB (HOW TO) 

I tried to make a camera sensor 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g8Qav3vIv9s&t

Carl Zeiss S-planar lens pt.1: general discussion 

Antique 4x5 camera creates 20 micron photolithography masks: Super tiny tax form 

Metallization: Making Conductive Traces on Silicon Chips. 

Copper metalization with a diode laser 

DIY Scanning Laser Microscope 

Learn how to make your own custom computer chips! 

Getting started with open source ASICs: community, tools & demos! 

Laser Scanning Microscope from Blu-ray Player #3: Increasing the Resolution 

You wont believe what you can see with this DIY Laser Microscope! 

Photolithography | Hackaday 

3D Printing Optomechanical Components 

(not lithography, but it may be useful/interesting) 

Metalenses at visible wavelengths: Diffraction-limited focusing and subwavelength resolution imaging | Science

A broadband achromatic metalens for focusing and imaging in the visible | Nature Nanotechnology  

The Plates & Tubes Behind Night Vision 

Self-cleaning glass windows 

How Digital Light Processing (DLP) works 

1665 How To Make A Fluorescent Jelly For Solar - Of All Things!

1664 Supercharge Your Solar panels With Fluorescence 

Adding fluorescent ink to solar cells increases their efficiency, since they increase the light being received. However, you would need to plan beforehand where to add the fluorescent inks. Some react better to ultraviolet, others to infrared, others to visible light.

So, you add the fluorescent ink before or after the filter? Or as the filter itself?

Macro-scale digital mirror device 

Optical finish for acrylic -- vapor polishing and other techniques 

Experimenting with a liquid lens and driver IC 

Focal tunable liquid lens integrated with an electromagnetic actuator 

Deformable Lenses - DYNAMIC OPTICS

A low-cost deformable lens for correction of low-order aberrations - ScienceDirect  

(PDF) Piezoelectric motors for camera modules 

Development of a new technology of deformable mirror for ultra intense laser applications - ScienceDirect

High-Speed Deformable Mirror for Laser Beam Focus Control in Cutting & Welding Applications  

Phased-array optics - Wikipedia 

Music-free ver.: Optical antennas: sophisticated infrared light manipulation technology (2020/11/04)

Optical Phased Arrays Characterization on Test Station|Protocol Preview  

https://youtu.be/eFXjBKkroPU 

Optical phased array technology on-chip at both near infrared and blue wavelengths 

Imaging with Optical Phased Array in Integrated Photonic Circuits 

Phased Array Demonstration System 

Visualization Of A Phased Array Antenna System | Hackaday 

Why 10,000 tiny lenses are the key to our sci-fi future | Hard Reset 

[2405.03053] Optical phased array using phase-controlled optical frequency comb 

[2404.08851] Mid-infrared 2D nonredundant optical phased array of mirror emitters in an InGaAs/InP platform

[2406.14406] Focusing Optical Phased Array for Optically Enabled Probing of the Retina with Subcellular Resolution

Rapid Prototyping RF Filters with Tape & QUCS   

Just now I found out about nanomeshes, and I do wonder if it would be better to use them as photovoltaic/photodiodes/image sensors with layers upon layers instead of a reflective background like the bio inspired cat eye camera.

Vapor dealloying of ultra-thin films: a promising concept for the fabrication of highly flexible transparent conductive metal nanomesh electrodes

nanoMesh™ Transparent Conductive Film | MicroContinuum

Highly stretchable and transparent nanomesh electrodes made by grain boundary lithography | Nature Communications

Transparent paper: fabrications, properties, and device applications - Energy & Environmental Science (RSC Publishing)  

I mean, you could even use them as transparent solar panels.

But… Why isn’t that done?

The cat-eye camera (a camera with reflective background and/or two-way mirrors) is interesting, but isn’t that just a resonator? Just like microphones have a diaphragm chamber that resonates with the sounds of the environment in order to make it easier to detect them?

Optical cavity - Wikipedia 

3D Printed Optical Resonators 

3D light field technology | Raytrix

High-resolution 3D video with a Fourier light field camera array  

Technically, you wouldn’t even need a photovoltaic cell for that, you could even use nanochannels filled with coolant, and once a specific wavelength passed through the filters, it would evaporate and generate pressure. That pressure could be turned into an electric signal, making a mechanical camera.

Virtual retinal display - Wikipedia 

https://youtu.be/m52yDfbEIkE 

In this video specifically, it is said that the retinal display they’ve built uses an array of micromirrors to shine the image into the retina to the user.

However, that is literally how projectors work.

I couldn’t find any video of people trying to convert a conventional projector to a retinal display, but maybe it could be done.

Well, both use DMD chips, so maybe you wouldn’t need to convert an entire image projector, just buy the mirror directly.

They normally cost around 100 to 400 reais (20 to 80 dollars).

A practical guide to Digital Micro-mirror Devices (DMDs) for wavefront shaping 

Application of digital micromirror devices (DMD) in biomedical instruments | Journal of Innovative Optical Health Sciences 

Sources: Curved holographic optical elements and applications for curved see-through displays Curved Holographic Combiner for Color Head Worn Display | Semantic Scholar 

Curved Holographic Augmented Reality Near-Eye Display System Based on Freeform Holographic Optical Element with Extended Field of View

New Technology Enhances Holographic Displays with Wider View and Sharper Images

Holographic Combiners Improve Head-Up Displays | Features | May 2019 | Photonics Spectra   

Holographic Near-eye Display with Expanded Eye-box 

f/0.38 camera lens made with oil immersion microscope objective 

Building My Own Anamorphic Lens | Alum 1.33x Anamorphic 

What if you just keep zooming in? 

You can use optical fibers as visors, although in this specific case, it uses a light sources The Fibrovisor 

I just checked, it seems like there aren’t any known materials that are transparent in every wavelength.

A water lens would block microwaves, infrared and ultraviolet. A silicone oil lens would allow microwaves and radiowaves, but block infrared.

So different cameras in different spectrums would be needed.

That or:

Sources: Lensless Camera – Innovative Camera supporting the Evolution of IoT : Research & Development : Hitachi Single-shot lensless imaging with fresnel zone aperture and incoherent illumination | Light: Science & Applications

Make multiple lenses to shine in the same sensors, like a multi-iris camera.

Sources: REVIEW: Light L16 - 16 Lens Camera of the Future that Failed... Wingtra Unveils Multispectral Camera with Panchromatic Sensor | GIM International 

Personally, I think it would be better to use the multi-iris camera. Easier to understand and to build.

I just said this and just now I found out about pinhole lenses:

Sources: What's The Use Of PINHOLE LENSES!? 

Well, he did say that since it is a pinhole and not a lens, even dirt can end up in contact with the sensors, so in the end this may still need some kind of lens.

However, since the pinhole, well, is a pinhole, the size of the lenses may be extremely small, allowing for an overlapping of multiple types of spectrums to be observed.

hmmmm… Better stick with the conventional lenses.

Also, the wavelength of microwaves and radiowaves are so big that you would need apertures and lenses with meters of diameter. The only way of dealing with it is by using an array of antennas in order to pick up images in these ranges.

Sources: How are antennas integrated into stealth aircraft? - Aviation Stack Exchange Metasurface‐enabled isolation between antenna arrays

Sources: A Real-Time Monitoring Method for Civil Aircraft Take-Off and Landing Based on Synthetic Aperture Microwave Radiation Technology Time-of-Flight Microwave Camera | Scientific Reports  

Well, that answers why radar screens don’t “just” show what they are seeing, but wave signals, dots and squares.

Source: Radar display - Wikipedia 

Stacking Transparent Solar Cells:

So, I was wondering about the possibility of using these same nanomeshes or transparent materials for transparent solar cells and stacking them together in order to increase efficiency.

The idea is that since the solar panel is transparent, you could stack multiple of them until they reached an efficiency around 90% or more.

From what I could understand, there are multi-junction solar panels that are transparent in certain wavelengths and opaque in others, but I'm not referring to them.

I'm referring to the idea of stacking the same type of transparent or semi-transparent solar cells one after another.

Since they are transparent/semi-transparent, doesn't that mean that only a fraction of the light wavelength was converted into electricity and the rest of its energy just passed through them? Thus allowing subsequent transparent solar panels to react to that other portion of light until it fully loses its energy?

If it was that simple, someone would’ve already made it, but I want to understand why it doesn’t work.

… In the end, the idea was to use a combustion flame to power up such a photovoltaic cell system, but I doubt it would work as simply…

Laser propulsion energy consumption:

I downloaded a crapton of articles about pulsed laser propulsion in order to add to a Bot on the Poe website, so I could ask how much energy I would need for every kilogram of thrust.

Its answer:

“Based on the information provided in the documents, a pulsed infrared laser propulsion system would require on the order of a megajoule of energy per pulse to generate significant thrust. The key factors are:

The coupling coefficient, which relates the laser energy to the generated impulse, is in the range of 2-92 dyne·s/J for solid propellants and 6-30 dyne·s/J for laser-breakdown of air [5]. This means that for 1 kg of thrust, you would need roughly 50-500 J of laser energy per pulse.

Experiments have demonstrated specific impulses of 700-900 s using a few joule-level CO2 laser pulses [2]. Scaling this up, a megajoule-class laser operating at 350 pulses/s could provide 10 g of acceleration for a 1-ton vehicle [5].

The pulse duration is also critical - shorter pulses in the picosecond or nanosecond regime can improve the coupling efficiency by reducing energy losses [3]. This is because the energy deposition happens faster than the gas can expand, leading to higher pressures and thrust.

So in summary, for a 1000 kg thrust system, a megajoule-class laser operating at high pulse rates (hundreds of Hz) with short pulse durations (ns or ps) could potentially provide the required thrust, with the laser energy per pulse in the range of 50-500 J. The exact requirements would depend on the specific design parameters and experimental validation. More research is still needed to fully optimize the performance of such pulsed laser propulsion systems [1][2][3].“

Well…

But it did mention that:

“A megajoule-class laser operating at high pulse rates (hundreds of Hz) with short pulse durations (ns or ps) could potentially provide the required 1000 kg of thrust, with the laser energy per pulse in the range of 50-500 J [1][3].”

So, assuming that the number of pulses is 350:

350 pulses x 50 joules = 17,500 joules in total 350 pulses x 500 joules = 175,000 joules in total

That for 1 kilogram, so I would extrapolate that for 1000 kg of thrust you would need 17 to 175 megajoules in total.

“Furthermore, flight experiments have demonstrated the ability to propel a lightcraft vehicle to an altitude of over 2.6 meters using a TEA CO2 laser with 13 J pulses at 50 Hz [4]. This indicates the potential for achieving effective air-breathing propulsion using pulsed laser-induced microdetonations.

Based on the information provided in the context, the nominal 14-cm (5.5 in.) diameter lightcraft vehicles used in the experimental flights weigh around 50-60 grams (1.8 to 2.1 oz) [1]. These ultralight vehicles were designed to be propelled by air-breathing pulsed detonation engines using the 10 kW PLVTS pulsed CO2 laser at the High Energy Laser Systems Test Facility (HELSTF) [1].”

13 joules x 50 pulses per second = 650 joules in total

1000 grams / 50 grams = 20

650 joules x 20 = 13,000 joules per kilogram of thrust

13,000 x 1000kg = 13,000,000 joules for 1 ton of thrust?

Again, it is talking out of its ass:

“In April 1997, tests by Leik Myrabo in cooperation with the US Army at White Sands Missile Range demonstrated the basic feasibility to propel objects in this way, using a 10-kW ground-based pulsed carbon dioxide laser (1 kJ per pulse, 30 μs pulse at 10 Hz frequency). The test succeeded in reaching over one hundred feet, which compares to Robert Goddard's first test flight of his rocket design.[2]

In October 2000, a new flight record was set with a flight lasting 10.5 seconds and reaching 71 meters (233 feet) using the same laser, but this time providing an on-board plastic ablative propellant, and rotating the body around its axis at high speed (over 10,000 rpm) to stabilize the craft with a gyroscopic effect.[8][9][6]”

Source: Lightcraft - Wikipedia 

So:

10 pulses x 1,000 = 10,000 joules to propel 50 grams.

1000 grams / 50 grams = 20 times more power required

20 x 10,000 = 200,000 joules for 1 kilogram of thrust

2 megajoules x 1000 kilograms = 200,000,000 Joules, aka 200 Megajoules.

Joules per second = Watts per second

200 megajoules x 60 seconds x 60 minutes = 720,000,000,000 watts or 720,000 megawatts or 960,000,000 horsepower.

Well… Air breathing pulsed Laser propulsion is a no-go.

I mean, continuous thermal laser propulsion is a way more efficient and practical method, but I was looking for instantaneous thrust with minimum complexity and weight.

The thermal laser needs to eject some kind of mass in order to propel itself, in order for it to work with air alone, it would need to work just like a plasma turbine.

Meaning it would need a compressor to compress air, expand it with the laser and then run the turbine that turns the compressor and a propeller blade.

Storing compressed air or water to generate steam is not practical.

Now what to do…?

About Diode Lasers:

Well, I talked a while back that diode lasers are really efficient, but can’t work with pulsed applications, only as continuous wave lasers (CW lasers).

HOWEVER, I just found this interesting video where a guy uses a diode laser within 2 milliwatts of continuous power and overdrives it up to 67 watts (an increase of around 30,000x more power output) without damaging it.

Most powerful diode Laser OVERDRIVEN! Nanosecond Laser! 

He does that by using the CW laser and adding nanosecond peak pulses while the laser is active, adding power to the laser.

Like adding high tidal waves to smaller tidal waves.

I don’t know if this will be useful for anything, but hey, I think it is cool. 

Pulsed Voice-Coil Propulsion:

Well, the only other idea I had was to use either voice coils or electromagnetic membrane actuators.

https://vimeo.com/199836988 

Source: Amazing new electric boat motor based on fish fins - Plugboats 

Example of how it would work.

For the voice-coil, I would need to find its stroke length and maximum speed. But most voice-coils are used in loudspeakers and subwoofers, so it would be a safe bet to say it moves at the speed of sound.

… Actually, I’m wrong. 

It seems like even though they can reach 20,000 hertz per second, they aren’t, in fact, moving at the speed of sound. They don’t need to move at the speed of sound, just vibrate the air.

How fast do speakers move? 

In either case, the idea is that it would be an electrically driven pulse-jet:

And since neither system actually moves at the speed of sound, I guess that a good way of making it work would be adding a nozzle similar to a rocket’s engine.

Rocket engine nozzle - Wikipedia

Thus, you would need to make a continuous generation of high pressure air flow into the converging-diverging nozzle. 

Acoustic and Thermoacoustic Jet Propulsion 

Just now I found this article

Electrostatic Loudspeaker (ESL) Technology - MartinLogan

And this video about sonic rockets:

Acoustic Rocket Demonstration -- revisiting Dvorak's 1878 Acoustic Repulsion Apparatus 

Acoustic Propulsion Part 2 (measurement of thrust)

Moving Things With Sound—Helmholtz Resonance Propulsion  

There are also free-piston powered turbine engines and reaction turbines (aka hero turbines)

I built the BEST COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE (New Rotary Design) 

But… What would be the efficiency of such a system?

Wouldn’t that be just like a tip-jet rotor anyway?

In either case, I think it would be better to make the jet go out in a diagonal line, so it rotates and generates thrust both by the airflow alone and by the propeller.

Source: Optimum Performance Determination of Single-Stage and Dual-Stage (Contra-Rotating) Rim Driven Fans for Electric Aircraft 

I would need to use that idea I had about the rechargeable Explosively pumped flux compression generator for pulsed power generation, where I would use hydrolysis or just direct fuel+air dust explosion to generate a repeatable detonation to power it up. According to ChatGPT, you would need 0.044 liters of water to convert into 58.8 liters of hydrogen and 29.5 liters of oxygen to achieve 700,000 joules.

Maybe a conventional flywheel energy storage/kinetic capacitor would be safer, and I think I misread it in earlier project logs:

Flywheel energy storage - Wikipedia

Compensated pulsed alternator - Wikipedia 

It can reach a density of 500,000 joules per kilogram of weight, but I bet I would only reach around 50 kilojoules.

At this point, why not just use a pulse jet straight up?

Being honest, I don’t really know…

But I do know that combustion based pulsejets have extremely low efficiency. Soooo….

Cold Plasma Propulsion:

Well, just now I gave a closer look to cold plasma torches. And maybe they can be a possible way of making solid state electrical propulsion viable.

The Cold Plasma Wand That Heals (Microjet)⚡ 

Cold Fire You Can Touch - DIY Cold Plasma Torch (this one talks about how dielectric plastics are used to increase the speed of the plasma, but wouldn't it be better to use an oxide layer, like anodized metals?)

COLD PLASMA - From a 9 Volt battery??? (Part 1)

Atmospheric pressure cold plasma jet - YouTube

How to Make a Cold Fire Torch That You Can Touch and Not Get Burned! 

From Space Thruster to Nappy Bin: Plasmas are Everywhere 

In essence, cold plasma/non-thermal plasma/non-equilibrium plasma can be made by using low voltage and extreme high frequency AC, generating radio waves (or microwaves). Completely different from the conventional plasma generators that use extreme high voltage arcs.

However, most of the examples that I found use a mix of non-reactive gas (like helium or argon) with around 20% of oxygen. But ambient air is around 30% oxygen and the rest is mostly nitrogen.

In any manner, the idea is to ionize the air, making cold plasma and then accelerating it with 3 phase electromagnets (like in a linear electric motor) at extremely high speeds in order to generate thrust.

But I couldn’t find anything that attempts to do that in atmospheric air. 🥲

Now that I think of it… Wouldn’t that mean that the Magnetohydrodynamic generator could be viable with cold plasma as the working medium?

The idea is to generate electricity directly from plasma moved by combustion, using it as a “wire” like any electric generator. They were always designed to work with extremely hot plasmas that would simply destroy the components…

I do wonder if I can find something on the subject…

There are articles around that study the use of it in MHD generators, but the result is the same if not worse.

The hotter the electrons in the plasma, the more conductive it is. But I don’t know how to make the electrons as hot as possible without making the ions also hot.

ChatGPT:

“1. Use of Radiofrequency (RF) Heating

RF heating is a method where electromagnetic waves are used to selectively heat electrons. By tuning the frequency of the RF waves to match the natural oscillation frequency of the electrons, you can increase their energy without imparting much energy to the heavier ions. This technique is commonly used in fusion research to control plasma temperatures.

2. Electron Cyclotron Resonance Heating (ECRH)

ECRH involves using microwaves at a frequency that matches the cyclotron frequency of electrons in a magnetic field. This method can efficiently heat electrons while keeping ions relatively cool, as the energy transfer is primarily to the lighter electrons due to their lower mass.”

Speaking of which, if the hotter the plasma the more conductive it is, would it be possible to use plasma spirals as electromagnetic coils?

I mean, you can contain the plasma with a somewhat weak magnetic field, then apply an ultra high current to the plasma flowing through it.

It seems I’m soundly wrong, the conductivity of plasma flattens after a certain temperature is reached.

(PDF) Influence of Thermal Conductivity and Plasma Pressure on Temperature Distribution and Acoustical Eigenfrequencies of High-Intensity Discharge Lamps

Special features of formation of plasma torch under conditions of hybrid laser-arc welding

Calculation of thermodynamic properties and transport coefficients of C 5 F 10 O-CO 2 thermal plasmas

(PDF) Arc Plasma Torch Modeling

Modeling of Pulsed Spark Discharge in Water and Its Application to Well Cleaning

Even at 100,000 Kelvin/100,000 ºC/180,000 ºF the water plasma barely reaches the conductivity of copper.

I asked online and some people are saying that in order to reach nearly infinite conductivity (like superconductors) you would need to reach around 1,000,000 Kelvin, which is 1/150 of the temperature inside tokamaks.

They normally work at 150 million Kelvin/Celsius.

Maybe it would be practical to actual physicists, but I doubt I would be able to do that in my backyard.

Now that I think of it²… Wouldn't it be possible to use the cold-plasma to make a plasma field like I was suggesting in the “Real life Force/Energy-field”?

Well, I could use the plasma as an electrode to make the idea I suggested. Where once two layers of plasma are connected through the disruption of a projectile, a high discharge of electricity will happen.

Plasma window - Wikipedia 

“Plasma becomes increasingly viscous at higher temperatures, to the point where other matter has trouble passing through.”

“The physical properties of the plasma window vary depending on application. The initial patent cited temperatures around 15,000 K (14,700 °C; 26,500 °F).

The only limit to the size of the plasma window are current energy limitations as generating the window consumes around 20 kilowatts per inch (8 kW/cm) in the diameter of a round window.”

On wikipedia it is said that citation is needed and the article below confirms it, but let’s remember that this is not using non-equilibrium plasma (it says it is at 1x10^4 kelvin = 10,000 Kelvin = 10,000 Celsius = 17,540 Fahrenheit).

Source: [PDF] Characterization of a plasma window as a membrane free transition between vacuum and high pressure | Semantic Scholar 

These can actually separate the atmosphere from vacuum using plasma alone, but that would require a crapton of energy. The plasma window in the image is just a few millimeters in size.

This also means that it could be used as an energy shield to block solid objects, but that would require too much energy to run continuously.

Wouldn’t that really be useful for fusion reactors, though?

You could make a plasma window separating the walls of the tokamak from the plasma, avoiding thermal loss and neutron bombardment (assuming the plasma would be able to stop the neutrons).

But then, how would you generate heat from the reaction then? The free neutrons smash into matter, generating heat… Unless you use the same principles of magnetohydrodynamic

• Non-thermal plasma electrolyte Fuel Cell:

Since I want to actually finish the mech project, I will abandon this idea and focus on the helium engine.

This part is extremely hypothetical and may or may not work.

Non-equilibrium plasma, non-thermal plasma or cold plasma is a type of plasma where its ions exist at room temperature (or even at cryogenic temperatures) while its electrons are at thousands of degrees above that. It is even cold to the touch.

Nonthermal plasma - Wikipedia 

The Cold Plasma Wand That Heals (Microjet)⚡

Cold Fire You Can Touch - DIY Cold Plasma Torch  

And since this plasma is a bunch of free ions and electrons, it is useful as a catalyst.

But I was wondering if it could be useful as an electrolyte/ion exchange membrane/mixed ionic-electronic conducting (MIEC) membrane, which would allow for a universal fuel cell with high efficiency at room temperature. Unlike other conventional fuel cells.

However, as always (frustratingly enough), I couldn’t find a single article that talks about this.

Probably because it doesn’t work, which would be extremely convenient for everyone if it did work… Just like anti-gravity, warp engines and all of these cool things.

ChatGPT however, pointed out that the free electrons in the plasma could short-circuit the cell without generating any kind of electricity from ion transport.

Electrolyte - Wikipedia 

“An electrolyte is a substance that conducts electricity through the movement of ions, but not through the movement of electrons.”

And thus, it suggested methods to separate, trap or scavenge the electrons and maintain the ions in the middle using cyclotrons and the like.

“Electric Fields

One of the primary methods for separating ions from electrons is the use of electric fields. By applying a strong electric field, you can create a potential difference that influences the movement of charged particles:

Positive Electric Field: A positively charged electrode can attract electrons while repelling positively charged ions. This can lead to a situation where electrons move towards the electrode, effectively separating them from the ions [2].

Ion Confinement: The ions, being positively charged, will be confined away from the electrode due to the repulsive forces acting on them, allowing for a degree of separation [2].

Ionization of Air

Ionization occurs when air molecules are energized enough to lose electrons, resulting in the formation of positive ions and free electrons. This can happen through various means:

High Voltage: Applying a high voltage can create a strong electric field that ionizes the air, separating electrons from ions. This is similar to the conditions that lead to lightning, where the electric field strength causes air to become ionized, creating a conductive path for electrons and ions to move [1].

Radiation: Exposure to high-energy radiation (like UV light) can also ionize air molecules, leading to the formation of positive ions and free electrons [2].

2. Use of Electric Fields

Once ionization occurs, you can use electric fields to separate the charged particles:

Electrostatic Forces: By applying a positive electric field, you can attract electrons towards a positively charged electrode while repelling positively charged ions. This creates a spatial separation between the two types of charges [1].

Ion Drift: In a controlled environment, ions can be made to drift towards a negatively charged electrode, further enhancing the separation of ions from electrons [2].

3. Plasma Generation

Creating a plasma state in ambient air can also facilitate the separation of ions and electrons:

Plasma Conditions: When air is ionized to the point of becoming plasma, the free electrons and ions can be manipulated using magnetic and electric fields. Plasma is highly conductive and allows for the movement of charged particles, which can be directed to achieve separation [1].

4. Maintaining Conditions

To ensure that the separation is effective:

Control Temperature and Pressure: Maintaining specific temperature and pressure conditions can help sustain the ionization process and prevent recombination of ions and electrons back into neutral atoms [2].

Minimize Recombination: Keeping the environment stable and continuously supplying energy can help prevent the recombination of ions and electrons, ensuring a higher concentration of positive ions [1].

By employing these methods, you can effectively separate ions from electrons in ambient air, creating a controlled environment where positive ions are predominant.”

How to completely turn a gas into positive or negative ions - Physics Stack Exchange

“Those tricks require the ions to be in motion, thus commonly making a beam of ions. The possibility exists of holding ions for long periods of time in a cyclotron (which directs the beam of ions in a circular path).

Small groups of ions can be held by laser traps, but gas-like random motion is not really happening there.”

Non-equilibrium Plasmas 

EUV Spectroscopy of Highly Charged Ions with an Electron Beam Ion Trap | SpringerLink

Electron-Trap and Hole-Trap Distributions in Metal/Oxide/Nitride/Oxide/Silicon Structures | Semantic Scholar  

Separation of Plasma into positive nucleus and negative electrons

So I kept asking:

“Ion exchange membranes are designed to selectively allow ions to pass through while blocking other particles. In contrast, membranes that facilitate electron transport are known as mixed ionic-electronic conducting (MIEC) membranes. These materials can conduct both ions and electrons simultaneously, making them valuable in various applications.

MIEC membranes are particularly significant in high-temperature processes, such as oxygen separation and solid oxide fuel cells. They enable the efficient transport of oxygen ions and electrons, which is essential for the functionality of these systems. However, achieving high ionic and electronic conductivity in MIEC membranes typically requires elevated temperatures, often exceeding 800–850 °C. This necessity poses challenges, including material stability and phase changes at such temperatures. To address these issues, researchers are exploring doping strategies and material modifications to enhance performance and stability under operational conditions. 

Mixed Ionic-Electronic Conducting Membranes (MIEC) for Their Application in Membrane Reactors: A Review 

In summary, while traditional ion exchange membranes focus solely on ion transport, MIEC membranes are engineered to facilitate both ion and electron conduction. This dual functionality is crucial for advanced energy applications, though it introduces complexities that require careful material design and engineering.”

I kept asking again and again in order to figure out if there is a way of using it as the ion exchange membrane by itself:

“Integrating non-thermal plasmas (NTPs) with materials that facilitate ion and electron conduction is an emerging area of research with potential applications in energy conversion, catalysis, and environmental remediation. While NTPs themselves are gaseous and cannot function as traditional mixed ionic-electronic conducting (MIEC) membranes, combining them with specific materials can create systems that mimic or enhance the functionalities of such membranes.

Porous Solids and Catalysts:

Incorporating porous solid materials, such as metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) or zeolites, into NTP reactors can enhance selective ion and electron transport. These materials provide high surface areas and tunable pore structures, facilitating interactions between plasma-generated species and the solid surface. This integration can improve reaction selectivity and efficiency in processes like gas separation and catalytic conversions. 

Integrating Materials in Non-Thermal Plasma Reactors: Challenges and Opportunities | Accounts of Materials Research 

Plasma-Modified Membranes:

Non-thermal plasma treatment can modify the surface properties of existing membranes, enhancing their ion or electron conductivity. For instance, plasma treatments can increase the hydrophilicity of polymeric membranes, improving ion transport. Such modifications are beneficial in applications like fuel cells and water purification systems. 

Nonthermal Plasma Technology as a Versatile Strategy for Polymeric Biomaterials Surface Modification: A Review | Biomacromolecules 

Plasma Polymerization:

Plasma polymerization involves depositing thin polymer films onto substrates using plasma. This technique can create membranes with tailored ion and electron conduction properties. By selecting appropriate monomers and plasma conditions, it's possible to engineer membranes suitable for specific applications, such as selective gas separation or protective coatings. 

Plasma polymerization - Wikipedia 

Woven Fabrics and Grids:

While less common, integrating NTPs with conductive woven fabrics or metal grids could be explored to develop flexible, conductive membranes. These structures might facilitate electron transport while allowing ion movement through embedded electrolytes or functional coatings. However, this approach would require careful material selection and design to ensure compatibility with plasma conditions and desired conductivity properties.

I searched for a few articles that used plasma electrochemistry to do other things, like electrolysis and the like, but nothing about using it in a fuel cell.

Plasma electrochemistry offers novel way to form organic chemical bonds | Department of Chemistry | Illinois 

Plasma electrochemistry: electroreduction in a flame - Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics (RSC Publishing)

(PDF) Plasma electrochemistry: Voltammetry in a flame plasma electrolyte 

Sources:

Visualization of Electrolytic Reactions at a Plasma-Liquid Interface 

Mimicking lightning-induced electrochemistry on the early Earth | PNAS

Sources:

Redox-mediated decoupled seawater direct splitting for H2 production | Nature Communications 

Mixed ionic-electronic conducting (MIEC) membranes for thermochemical reduction of CO2: A review - ScienceDirect 

So, I kept asking and eventually went to an article mentioning “flame plasma electrolyte” and I got interested, so I asked ChatGPT yet again:

(PDF) Plasma electrochemistry: Voltammetry in a flame plasma electrolyte 

“Yes, the term "flame plasma electrolyte" refers to the use of a flame's ionized medium as an electrolyte in electrochemical experiments. In this context, the flame acts as a conductive medium, allowing for electrochemical reactions to occur at the interface between the flame and an electrode. This approach enables the study of redox processes in a high-temperature, gas-phase environment without the limitations imposed by traditional liquid electrolytes.

Research in this area has demonstrated the feasibility of conducting voltammetry—a technique used to study electrochemical properties—within a flame plasma electrolyte. For instance, studies have shown that cyclic voltammetry can be performed in a flame environment, allowing for the observation of redox processes over a wide potential window. This is possible due to the absence of solvent electrolysis, which typically limits the potential range in conventional liquid-phase electrochemistry. 

Plasma electrochemistry: voltammetry in a flame plasma electrolyte - Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics (RSC Publishing) 

Additionally, the development of specialized reference electrodes, such as those composed of yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), has facilitated stable potential measurements at elevated temperatures (~1100 K) within flame environments. These advancements have provided insights into electron transfer mechanisms at the solid–gas interface, revealing similarities to processes observed in traditional solid–liquid electrochemical systems. 

Plasma electrochemistry: voltammetry in a flame plasma electrolyte - Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics (RSC Publishing) 

The concept of using a flame plasma electrolyte directly within fuel cells is not well-established in current research. However, related areas have been explored, particularly in the context of flame-assisted fuel cells (FFCs) and plasma-assisted combustion.

Flame-Assisted Fuel Cells (FFCs):

FFCs utilize a flame to provide the necessary thermal energy for fuel cell operation, typically enhancing the performance of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). The flame's heat supports the high-temperature environment required for efficient electrochemical reactions. Modeling studies have been conducted to understand the kinetic factors influencing FFC performance, aiming to optimize their efficiency and operational stability. 

Modeling of the Kinetic Factors in Flame-Assisted Fuel Cells 

I don’t know if simply combusting things with electrodes would make an efficient fuel cell, but maybe you could mix it with other combustion based generators. Like a conventional internal combustion engine or the boiler in a steam engine or helium engine.

And in fact, there are studies:

Sources: 

Investigation of flame-assisted fuel cells integrated with an auxiliary power unit gas turbine - ScienceDirect 

(PDF) Micro-tubular flame-assisted fuel cells running methane 

“While recent advances in DFFC power density are promising [3,4], the overall electrical efficiency of these sys-tems remains low due to low fuel utilization (<1%) and lowelectrical efficiency [3,4,7], making the heat-to-power ratio impractical for traditional CHP systems. Improvements inSOFC design and fabrication can help improve the fuel utili-zation, but Wang et al. noted that the difference in gas combustion kinetics compared to electrochemical kinetics makes high fuel utilization difficult to achieve [7]. Obtaininghigher fuel utilization has been considered as a primary obstacle for DFFCs and has not been fully resolved at this time.”

If the efficiency is so low, then why go through the trouble of adding it to the combustion engine?

In any manner:

So there are direct flame fuel cells and flame-assisted fuel cells, then why in tarnation there can’t be non-thermal plasma fuel cells?

“Your analysis presents a plausible concept: continuously ionizing the surface of a porous solid to create a material with ion-exchange membrane-like properties. This approach leverages the principles of surface ionization and plasma treatment to modify the material's characteristics. Let's examine the key points and supporting evidence:

1. Continuous Ionization of a Porous Solid Surface

Ionization Mechanism: Utilizing non-thermal (cold) plasma techniques to ionize the surface is a well-established method. Plasma treatment can introduce reactive species onto the material's surface, enhancing its reactivity and potential for ion interaction. For instance, plasma treatment has been employed to increase the hydrophilicity of porous materials, thereby improving their interaction with aqueous solutions. 

WO2003051498A1 - Plasma treatment of porous materials - Google Patents 

Porous Structure: The inherent porosity of the material provides a high surface area, facilitating ion diffusion and interaction. This structural feature is advantageous for applications requiring selective ion transport, as it allows for greater interaction between the material and the ions.

2. Potential for Ion Exchange

Ion Attraction and Repulsion: Ion-exchange membranes function by selectively allowing certain ions to pass through based on surface charge and pore structure. By ionizing the surface of a porous material, it could selectively attract or repel specific ions, effectively enabling ion-exchange properties. Surface modification techniques, such as plasma treatment, have been shown to enhance the ion-exchange capabilities of membranes by altering their surface characteristics. 

Surface modification of ion‐exchange membranes: Methods, characteristics, and performance 

Electric Field Effect: Continuous ionization can establish a sustained electric field on the material's surface, influencing ion movement. This mechanism is fundamental to the operation of ion-exchange membranes, where electric fields drive the selective transport of ions.

3. Challenges

Surface Recombination: Maintaining a stable ionized surface is challenging, as charged particles may recombine into neutral species. Continuous ionization is necessary to sustain the desired surface charge. Research indicates that plasma treatment can modify the surface properties of materials, but maintaining a stable ionized state requires careful control of the plasma environment. 

WO2003051498A1 - Plasma treatment of porous materials - Google Patents 

Heat and Stability: Continuous ionization can generate heat, potentially destabilizing the material. The material must be thermally stable under ionizing conditions to prevent degradation. Studies on plasma treatment have highlighted the importance of controlling plasma parameters to avoid thermal damage to the substrate.

Short-Circuiting: Excessive free electrons from ionization could lead to short-circuiting, where electrons bypass the intended ionic transport pathways. This issue is pertinent in plasma-treated materials, where controlling electron density is crucial to prevent unintended conductive pathways.

Material Compatibility: The material must withstand continuous ionization without degradation. Plasma treatment has been used to enhance the properties of various materials, but the compatibility and stability of the material under continuous ionization require thorough evaluation.

4. Practical Considerations

Plasma Treatment: Plasma-enhanced catalysis and surface modification are established applications of plasma treatment. These methods can improve the ion-exchange properties of materials by altering surface energy and charge distribution. For example, plasma treatment has been used to produce ultrathin nanoparticle layers on membrane surfaces, enhancing their functionality. 

Surface modification of ion‐exchange membranes: Methods, characteristics, and performance 

Potential Applications: An ionized porous material could be utilized in desalination, selective ion removal, or as a component in fuel cells requiring selective ion transport. The modification of ion-exchange membranes through plasma treatment has been explored to improve parameters such as mass transport, selectivity, and resistance to fouling. 

Special Issue : Surface Modification of Ion Exchange Membranes 

5. Experimental Feasibility

While direct research on continuously ionizing the surface of a porous material to create a dynamic ion-exchange membrane is limited, related studies on plasma treatment and surface modification provide a foundation for this concept. For instance, plasma treatment has been employed to modify the hydrophilicity of porous materials, enhancing their interaction with aqueous solutions. 

WO2003051498A1 - Plasma treatment of porous materials - Google Patents 

 Additionally, plasma polymerization has been studied for its applications in membrane technology, indicating the potential for plasma-treated porous materials in ion-exchange applications. 

Plasma polymerization - Wikipedia “

In conclusion: there isn’t anything anywhere that sustains such an idea.

By chance, I talked to another Brazilian about this mech project. THe guy in question is (I believe) coursing thermodynamic chemistry in college, so I asked him about the possibility of a fuel cell that uses non-thermal plasma as the ion exchange membrane.

He arrived at a similar conclusion to me: there isn’t any kind of resource on the subject. 😔

However, he did mention that the system would be really, really dynamic and that I would need to make a continuous calculation based on the position of ions and electrons in the membrane. 

Which made me wonder if a moving system would be better, essentially having 3 jets of gas flowing in parallel, the fuel, the plasma membrane and the oxidizer. Kinda like a redox flow battery…

This wouldn’t be much different than a conventional redux flow battery...

Or not…

• Liquid Metal Magnetohydrodynamic generator:

Since I want to actually finish the mech project, I will abandon this idea and focus on the helium engine.

Yes, I gave up on the idea because it is not as efficient as other options, not even as internal combustion engines.

However, it is not like you have the other options that are as safe and as accessible. There is not a single 400 horsepower combustion engine that fits in your backpack and doesn’t costs $$$$$$$$$ dollars, the helium thermal engine can be dangerous due to the pressure required and highly sketchy on its own, the molten carbonate fuel cell can be toxic and dangerous.

So, being realistic and choosing the less efficient, but simpler and safer approach is not out of the list of options. Of course, you can take the ideas suggested in these other energy generation units and apply them to the Liquid metal magnetohydrodynamic generator (LMMHDG), such as the ideas in the “Helium Thermal Engine”. You can also use the ideas listed in the “Cold Plasma Propulsion” section in order to make it even more power dense, the only difference is the medium which you are working with (plasma or liquid metals). You put energy in, and you have propulsion, you take energy out and you have a generator.

I say this, but being honest, what is the difference between a LMMHDG and a linear electric generator or a bi-directional turbine generator?

They also achieve similar efficiencies on thermoacoustics (25 to 30% efficiency), but what about conventional combustion?

ChatGPT:

“Linear electric generators, particularly free-piston linear generators (FPLGs), have demonstrated notable efficiencies when utilizing conventional combustion methods. These systems convert chemical energy from fuel directly into electrical energy by driving magnets through a stator without the need for a traditional crankshaft. This design reduces mechanical losses and allows for variable compression and expansion ratios, enhancing overall efficiency.

For instance, Mainspring Energy's linear generators achieve electrical efficiencies around 45% and can exceed 80% efficiency in combined heat and power (CHP) applications. 

 Similarly, Toyota's prototype free-piston engine linear generator has reported a thermal efficiency of 42% under continuous operation. 

In contrast, bi-directional turbine generators are typically employed in renewable energy contexts, such as tidal or wave energy conversion, where the flow direction of the working fluid changes. These turbines are designed to operate efficiently under bi-directional flow conditions, optimizing energy capture from oscillating water columns or tidal streams. However, their application in conventional combustion-based systems is uncommon, and specific efficiency metrics in such contexts are not well-documented.”

Sources listed:

Mainspring Energy: linear generator breakthrough?

Free-piston engine - Wikipedia 

3D print the bidirectional impulse turbine for the thermoacoustic Stirling engine 

Source: Acoustic characteristics of bi-directional turbines for thermoacoustic generators | Frontiers in Energy 

Just like I said in the topic of “On the subject of Actuators”, there are metals that are liquid at room temperature or close to it.

Fusible alloy - Wikipedia 

And thus, you can use these alloys as the working medium, even though most LMMHDG use sodium, potassium and other “spicy” metals. You could also increase its conductivity by adding copper powder, silver ink or similar.

Laboratory Characterization of a Liquid Metal MHD Generator for Ocean Wave Energy Conversion (Efficiency of 20%)

(PDF) Experimental and numerical study of a liquid metal magnetohydrodynamic generator for thermoacoustic power generation (Efficiency of 24%)

A Liquid Metal Alternate MHD Disk Generator (It is a simulation, so of course it says its efficiency is 60%, however, the disk type of MHD generator is known to be the most efficient ones, and you can see that increasing the load resistance, increases efficiency)

(PDF) SPACE THERMO ACOUSTIC RADIO-ISOTOPIC POWER SYSTEM: SPACE TRIPS (25% efficiency)

MHD Generation for Sustainable Development, from Thermal to Wave Energy Conversion: Review  

Artūrs Brēķis MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC GENERATOR DRIVEN BY A THERMOACOUSTIC ENGINE 

(PDF) Review on the conversion of thermoacoustic power into electricity 

Alternating current liquid metal vortex magnetohydrodynamic generator 

A Liquid-Metal Based Spiral Magnetohydrodynamic Micropump 

A Review on Structural Configurations of Magnetorheological Fluid Based Devices Reported in 2018–2020

Three-phase alternating current liquid metal vortex magnetohydrodynamic generator - ScienceDirect 

A Review on Structural Configurations of Magnetorheological Fluid Based Devices Reported in 2018–2020

A novel thermoacoustically-driven liquid metal magnetohydrodynamic generator for future space power applications (27% efficiency)

Acoustic characteristics of bi-directional turbines for thermoacoustic generators   

(PDF) Existence of an optimized stellarator with simple coils (I know, I keep bringing up the optimized stellarator every time the MHD generator is mentioned, still, it might be useful)

Single-stage stellarator optimization:combining coils with fixed boundary equilibria 

Bro, I kid you not, this subject is so extremely niche that every time I try to search for it on google, it keeps showing my own project logs.

OFF-TOPIC:

Portable Nuclear Reactors:

No, I won’t work with it, I’m just a little disappointed with the nuclear prospect and I wanted to take the subject out of my head.

BES-5 - Wikipedia 

This is a small nuclear reactor used by the Soviet Union in order to power up satellites.

“contained 35–50 kg of enriched uranium. The entire reactor, including the radiation shielding, weighed 385 kg.”

“The uranium fuel was more than 90% enriched 235U [3] and generated 3 kW of electrical power[4] created by thermoelectric conversion of 100 kW of thermal output.”

So the highly enriched Uranium fuel weighed 50 kg, produced 100 Kw of thermal power and required 7 to 10 times its weight in radiation shielding.

Although the mech is supposed to consume around 100 kilowatts all the time and only output 300 kw when over exerting itself, this reactor would actually be capable of powering it up.

… If you had a highly efficient thermal engine.

… But it would weigh around 400 kilograms. Which is already the weight of the entire mech.

Compact Nuclear Fusion Reactor using X-rays

Well, speaking of nuclear reactors, I was wondering how I’d make an attempt on nuclear fusion.

Obviously, I won’t mess with anything of the sort, because I still have some self-preservation in my dumb lizard brain.

So, if some physicist and nuclear expert invited me to make a suggestion on how to make one, I’d say the following:

There is a type of optical trap called “optical tweezers”, you can use them to cool down charged ions to near absolute zero. And you would do that to tritium and/or deuterium atoms floating in a chamber.

THis would make the atoms freeze and move to the detonation chamber.

The detonation chamber would be the permanent hohlraum capsule, made out of gold, which is the only material that can reflect X-rays (I think).

Also, I’m only talking about x-rays because I saw somewhere that the infrared lasers in the national ignition facility are converted into x-rays with the hohlraum’s gold.

Once the optical trap moves the frozen ion atoms to the detonation chamber, X-ray tubes or x-ray lasers (the option with 90% to 99% efficiency) would first use a quick ionization of the atoms just before the use of the avalanche transistor circuit to make a single, high efficient pulse that would detonate/implode the atoms floating in the detonation chamber.

I spoke more on the laser propulsion part, on the “about diode lasers”. Essentially, you can make a nanosecond pulse with diodes that can be 30,000 times more powerful than its actual rating without damaging the diode.

Of course, the capacitor bank required for that should be a high efficiency one. Such as the flywheel capacitor bank with an energy density of around 500 kilojoules per kilogram and efficiency of 95%.

The gold detonation chamber would be lined with lithium isotopes that convert other hydrogen isotopes such as protium (conventional hydrogen from water) into tritium or deuterium and/or muons.

Muons can work as catalyzers of nuclear fusion, but they only last a few microseconds. They can only be produced with particle accelerators hitting lithium isotopes, and since the detonation just ionized the target and shot everything everywhere, the now already produced muons could theoretically help the fusion.

However, even if the muons wouldn’t work, the system would still work with a continuous pulsed laser detonation fusion.

Well, since the detonation chamber would produce a lot of undesired by-products, such as gold vapour, these reactions could happen in parallel fusion reactors, and the idea is that they would be really compact and small since you would need a permanent hohlraum capsule. And since hohlraum capsules are really small…

And finally, the heat would be transmitted through the liner, through the gold, directly to a helium engine (an helium engine works just like a steam one, but with more efficiency) with 95% efficiency.

The national ignition facility inputs around 2 megajoules of energy into their inertial confinement system and 3 megajoules out of the reaction. But their system has 0.1% efficiency.

FAQs | National Ignition Facility & Photon Science. 

So, if you have a 95% efficient capacitor bank, a 95% x-ray emitting source, a 95% heat engine, then you have a system with around 85% efficiency capable of self-sustaining fusion.

Since 85% of 3 megajoules is 2.55 and you need 2.05 megajoules to start the reaction, you get 5 megajoules of every reaction.

1 reaction per second = 1,300 watt-hours

10 reactions per second = 13,000 watt-hours

100 reactions per second = 130,000 watt-hours

1000 reactions per second = 1,300,000 watt-hours

Rotary skirts for Hovercrafts

I heard that Hovercrafts faded out because the skirts are known for not lasting long because of the friction with the soil.

Wouldn't a wheel-like/tank-track-like rotary skirt help mitigate the damage to the skirt due to friction with the soil?

I know that this wouldn't be much different than a low pressure wheel, but low pressure tires can be punctured, hovercrafts not so much.

Has anyone ever tried this before? (I couldn’t find an answer btw)

Since a hovercraft is a pneumatic machine, you can just use the same calculators for the matter.

If you had an area of 0.1 square meters (1000cm², or a Mech feet with 25 cm of width and 40 cm of length), you could lift 1000 kilograms with around 3 bars of pressure.

So far, the only idea I had was to make essentially a wheel with segmented holes, and inside of these holes a membrane would stop the air from coming out. At the middle of these holes, there would be a pin, when the pin touches the ground (or a mechanism forces it open), it pushes the membrane up, allowing the air to flow and make an air blanket.

Needless to say, the tubing would need to be sealed with a sealed bearing.

Imagine this, but rotary.

Well, I found some online hovercraft calculators and essentially, I would need around 80 Cubic Meters/3000 Cubic Feet per minute of air per minute, that would be 90,000 liters of air at 3 bars flowing into the hovercraft’s skirt (so, you would need 3 times more than that). You would need so much energy it would be easier to simply strap drone motors to the mech. lol

… Or I could just reduce the pressure, increase the area and use a bigger, but less power consuming fan.

This one uses 200 watts of power to transport around 1000 CFM of air:

I input the new values into the calculators and it still gave around 47,000 CFM at 0.001 bars of pressure and around 62 square meters of area to lift 1000kg. I would need around 12 horsepower assuming ideal efficiency.

Well, I actually decided (for some reason) that the cushion of air would be around 50cm tall, so that’s why it ended up so freaking high.

If you reduce it to just the distance between the feet and the ground is around 5mm, then the energy consumption and airflow would be reduced to 18 liters per minute or 0.6 CFM (assuming it is at 3 bars of pressure). 

Omnidirectional tank tracks/caterpillar tracks.

On a similar subject though, I was looking at omnidirectional tank tracks/caterpillar tracks.

Although they aren’t as simpler as the hovercraft, they aren’t an active structure that requires constant energy input to work.

I was thinking of making them, but the hovercraft doesn’t need constant maintenance and extra parts to work. If it was a conventional vehicle, like an actual tank or an excavator unit, then I would use the omnidirectional track, hovercrafts are bad with slopes, but mechs are. If you aren’t using a mech, an omnidirectional track is it.

The World's Simplest Omnidirectional Mobile Robot / 世界一シンプルな全方向移動ロボット

This one uses a spiral that can be rotated on its own axis.

How Liddiard Wheels work. Explainer video. 

This one seems quite similar in function.

But the most practical/viable one would be this:

Source: Development of a Novel Omnidirectional Treadmill-Based Locomotion Interface Device with Running Capability 

The article doesn’t show it (or I simply scrolled too fast), but the hollow rotating tracks could have a solid bar guide within them that would allow for better structural integrity in harsh environments and work as well as a good reinforcement and connector of the tracks, just like in conventional ones.

Working LEGO Omni-Directional Treadmill 

Design of the omni directional treadmill based on an Omni-pulley mechanism | Semantic Scholar 

Winged Mech?

I was wondering here, since the mech can lift thousands of kilograms, then wouldn't it be possible to make a mech/exoskeleton with wings?

An ornithopter jet pack?

The feathers on birds work as “check valves” that only allow the air to pass through their wings when they flap them backwards, when they flap their wings downwards, the air can’t pass through the feathers, generating lift. However, I would guess that as complex as animals are, that they can control which direction the “check valves” work.

How Bird Wings Work (Compared to Airplane Wings) - Smarter Every Day 62

Festo BionicSwift 2021 

Building a rocket bird (ornithopter) 

Another inspiration for ornithopters, there are bat wings. Which makes me wonder if it would be better to make a dragon wing.

How Bionic Wings Are Reinventing Drones

Festo - Bionic Robots || 7 Amazing Bionic Robots || Episode 1 | 4K | YouTube 4K | Robotic Automation 

For last there also insect-like ornithopters:

Investigating the Secrets of Dragonfly Flight

A flying robot with flapping wings can dart through the air like an insect

Are Drones That Flap Their Wings Better? 

3D Printed Hovering Ornithopter 

Dynamics and Control of a Flapping Wing UAV with Abdomen Undulation Inspired by Monarch Butterfly 

There seems to be jellyfish inspired ornithopters, it seems?

Flying Machine Designed After A Jellyfish 

Also:

A strange flying object in YMMF Part2 

(anime is “dungeon meshi”)

I do wonder, how viable would be ornithopters in real life? How viable would mech/exosuit ornithopters be?

How efficient are they?

How practical would they be compared to conventional active flight systems?

How rad would it be to ride a mecha-dragon?

Artist: JASON CHAN

Also, I was thinking here:

If the wings are just “moving check valves” of air, then wouldn’t that mean that you can literally have them work in any shape or form?

Amphibious Velox robot uses undulating fins to swim and crawl

EvoLogics BOSS Manta Ray - the stunningly lifelike subsea robot for automated monitoring

What if it was in the shape of a snake, centipede or tentacle? Like a continuum robot?

Kinda how a Crinoid swims:

Feather Stars and Their Animal Invaders | Nat Geo Wild 

The Amazing Paradise Flying Snake | Wildest Islands Of Indonesia (oh yeah, I forgot, there are flying snakes already)

Helicopter Control - Flapping 

Sources: A 3-DOF caudal fin for precise maneuvering of thunniform-inspired unmanned underwater vehicles | Scientific Reports Investigation of an Underwater Vectored Thruster Based on 3RPS Parallel Manipulator - Liu - 2020 - Mathematical Problems in Engineering

In the article it isn’t a tail, but a motor, but you could use both interchangeably.

Also, bonus thing: inflatable airplanes.

Source of second pic: Inflatable kites using the concept of Tensairity 

Inflatable Airplanes Were A Bad Idea

An inflatable wing using the principle of Tensairity 

History of the GoodYear Inflatable Aircraft - the Inflatoplane 

WoopyFly Inflatable Wing Ultralight Aircraft

The Inflatable Rescue Plane that Could Actually Fly

Why Inflatable Planes Failed

Review of tensairity and its applications in agricultural aviation | Semantic Scholar 

YEs, in all of the videos it is stated how they failed, however, the idea would be to make deployable structures that could allow for short flight, something around seconds to minutes of flight time close to the ground.

Also, you don’t need to use air, but foam to keep it inflatable, but that would be a permanent action…

Maybe using a continuous flow of air like a hovercraft could make it continuously inflatable… Even with holes and the like…

Well, maybe variable stiffness materials could be used. Like one of those universal grippers.

New universal gripper using MR alpha fluid (this one uses magnetorheological fluid, a lot of universal grippers use vacuum pumps, which suffer the same issues as pneumatics) 

3D-Printed Ready-To-Use Variable-Stiffness Structures 

Article Variable-stiffness metamaterials with switchable Poisson's ratio 

https://youtu.be/PaqbFoaBX_A 

A Variable Stiffness Actuator Based on Leaf Springs: Design, Model and Analysis 

But at this point, wouldn't it be better to use a motorized parafoil?

Source of left pic: Development of Deployable Wings for Small Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Using Compliant Mechanisms | Semantic Scholar

Semi-Rigid Deployable Wing

Development and evaluation of a light-weight flexure-based lockable joint for morphing wings - ScienceDirect

Source: (PDF) A Tailsitter UAV Based on Bioinspired, Tendon-Driven, Shape-Morphing Wings with Aerofoil-Shaped Artificial Feathers (This one is just so beautiful to me)

Very High Lift Coefficient Wings: The latest developments 

You could do something like balteus, with telescopic wings

Rotatable Telescopic Wingsail

Design of an axially telescoping wing control system based on servo motor | Semantic Scholar

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/09544062241237666?journalCode=picb

(PDF) Performance Assessment of a Variable-Span Morphing Wing Small UAV for High Altitude Surveillance Missions 

(PDF) Adaptive Control and Actuation System Development for Biomimetic Morphing 

A Review on Applications and Effects of Morphing Wing Technology on UAVs 

Multi Mode Vehicle : You Can Turn Your Motorbike to Aircraft - Tuvie Design 

(PDF) Conceptual adaptive wing-tip design for pollution reductions 

Flight dynamic modeling and control for a telescopic wing morphing aircraft via asymmetric wing morphing - ScienceDirect

(PDF) Design and analysis of thermal protection and load-bearing integrated structure of the telescopic wing 

Design and Motion Control of Fully Variable Morphing Wings

 (PDF) A Review of Morphing Wing 

Multi-point aerodynamic shape optimization for airfoils and wings at supersonic and subsonic regimes | Semantic Scholar

Design of a Variable-Stiffness Compliant Skin for a Morphing Leading Edge 

Aero-structural optimization and analysis of a camber-morphing flying wing: Structural and wind tunnel testing  

Aerodynamic Analysis of Morphing Nose Cone on Falcon 9 

(PDF) Surrogate-Based Aerodynamic Shape Optimization by Variable-Resolution Models | MANIKANDAN MURUGAIAH - Academia.edu 

 Aircraft morphing wing concepts with radical geometry change

Development of a New Span-Morphing Wing Core Design 

China Unveils Morphing Wing Tech for Future Cross-Domain Aircraft Design of a Distributedly Active Morphing Wing Based on Digital Metamaterials (I think that the second link is the article used as a basis to build the morphing wing in the first link)

Blending of Inputs and Outputs for Modal Control of Aeroelastic Systems 

Compliant Mechanisms and how they are going to build the future 

A New Architecture of Morphing Wing Based on Hyperelastic Materials and Metastructures With Tunable Stiffness

Development of Variable Camber Continuous Trailing Edge Flap for Performance Adaptive Aeroelastic Wing 

A compliant polymorphing wing for small UAVs - ScienceDirect  

Design and control of tensegrity morphing airfoils 

A Polymorphing Wing Capable of Span Extension and Variable Pitch 

Design and analysis of a configuration-based lengthwise morphing structure 

Aero-structural optimization of supersonic wing under thermal environment using adjoint-based optimization algorithm 

Design and Analysis of MataMorph-3: A Fully Morphing UAV with Camber-Morphing Wings and Tail Stabilizers 

Design, modeling, and control of morphing aircraft: A review - ScienceDirect 

(PDF) A Review of Morphing Wing 

Fluid–Structure Coupling and Aerodynamic Performance of a Multi-Dimensional Morphing Wing with Flexible Metastructure Skin 

Autonomous material composite morphing wing - Daniel Morton, Artemis Xu, Alberto Matute, Robert F Shepherd, 2023 

[PDF] CORRUGATED STRUCTURES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN MORPHING WING TECHNOLOGY | Semantic Scholar 

Bioinspired morphing wings for extended flight envelope and roll control of small drones | Interface Focus 

The mechanics of composite corrugated structures: A review with applications in morphing aircraft 

Novel Design and Validation Test of Rollable CFRP Blade for UAM | International Journal of Aeronautical and Space Sciences 

New conceptual design of the adaptive compliant aircraft wing frame - ScienceDirect 

Design and experiment of concentrated flexibility-based variable camber morphing wing - ScienceDirect 

(PDF) Design and application of compliant mechanisms for morphing aircraft structures 

Wings of a Feather Stick Together: Morphing Wings with Barbule-Inspired Latching

A variable camber wing concept based on corrugated flexible composite skin 

An overview for effects on aerodynamic performance of using winglets and wingtip devices on aircraft 

A Shear-Sliding Rigid-Flexible Coupled Skin Variable-Sweep Wing Design and Heat-Fluid-Structure Multifield Coupling Analysis 

Crash-perching on vertical poles with a hugging-wing robot | Communications Engineering 

A Preliminary Technology Readiness Assessment of Morphing Technology Applied to Case Studies 

https://ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/mavt/fluid-dynamics/ifd-dam/events/documents/ISFV2018_abstracts.pdf 

Passive Gust Alleviation of a Flying-wing Aircraft by Analysis and Wind-tunnel Test of a Scaled Model in Dynamic Similarity 

https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/UF/E0/

A Closer Look: Main bearing Pt. 1

Mod-01 Lec-21 Centrifugal Compressor Part I 

Compressors - Turbine Engines: A Closer Look 

Introduction to Axial Compressor Design 

Is it Possible to 3D Print WORKING AXIAL COMPRESSOR? - (Testing different blade designs) 

Two POWERFUL 3D Printed Axial Compressors - feat. Uniformation GKTwo 

It Took Me 3 Months To Get This Working - Two-Stage Centrifugal Compressor 100% 3D Printed 

I 3D Printed a Compressor that ACTUALLY WORKS (but you've never heard of this design) 

3D Printed Two-Stage Compound Turbo Compressor 

The old GTM160 micro jet engine in service. Complete disassembly of the engine, repair and assembly. 

Turbo Compressor designs - Discussed 

DIY 3D Printed Vacuum Impellers 

Comparing Turbine Rotors 

Full Moon Afterburner Run 

Final Report Thermodynamic Demonstration Unit

Original Article Design of a two spool contra-rotating turbine for a turbo-fan engine

Analysis of Flow through Vaneless Contra-Rotating Turbine of Jet Propulsion Engine

(PDF) Counter Rotating Turbine Engine Compressor Blade System | Alex Gardner - Academia.edu    

I was wondering:

If I’m going through the trouble of doing all of this, then why not go back to that idea of making a turbine engine that works like a Firework Spinning Wheel.

Essentially, instead of compressing the air to go through a combustion chamber and the expanding gas going through a turbine, I would use the expanding gas from the combustion chamber to rotate the entire thing.

I mean, if the expanding gas can rotate a turbine, then why wouldn't it be able to rotate itself?

Why the combustion chambers of a turbine engine aren't used to spin the compressor like a firework wheel? - Aviation Stack Exchange 

The problems would arise from injecting fuel and/or using the heat exchanger to increase efficiency.

In the case of the fuel, you could either use a rotary feeder or a vacuum ejector connected to the combustion chamber, sucking fuel and mixing it with both the incoming air and the compressed air.

The heat exchanger would require some tubing and clever engineering, maybe making the air channels to go around the rocket nozzles both for cooling and as a heat exchanger.

https://sci-hub.ru/https://doi.org/10.2514/6.1991-3124 

According to the research it would be slightly less efficient than a conventional helicopter turboshaft, but I mean… The idea would be to run this thing with a compressor, heat exchanger and a temperature of 2000ºC.

Just now I remembered that this engine would be essentially a hero reaction turbine.

Air Powered... Propeller?

Source: Investigation of the performance and flow characteristics of two-phase reaction turbines in total flow geothermal systems - ScienceDirect 

Igniting Our Own Rocket Engines - DIY 

I built the BEST COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE (New Rotary Design) 

Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123838421000081 

Maybe I could feed both air and fuel through a hollow shaft.

Now that I think about it…

I think it would be a wise decision to add a shaft seal to the fuel feel, just for precaution.

Also, the incoming air will first go through the heat exchanger surrounding the exhaust of the reaction turbine, and the same heat will be used to reform the charcoal/wood fuel into syngas to avoid clogging.

Wouldn’t spinning the entire fuel chamber with the damned engine be more practical and safer?

Besides, the fuel would be reformed and naturally maintain the solid parts at the tips and the lighter gas at the center.

You could make the fuel tank limited and only after it depletes sufficiently enough, you stop it and re-inject the fuel while the battery keeps things running.

Isn’t this just a rotary ramjet system?

Also, for some reason a lot of designs for turbineless jet engines use screw compressors without a shell. Most of them rely solely on the mechanical sealing of the screw to the static walls.

Source: Chinese scientists propose ram-rotor detonation engine for hypersonic flight | South China Morning Post 

Helical Blade Turbineless Gas Jet Engine 

I mean, bruh, just add a rotating shell to the screw itself so it doesn’t have any blades and walls to turn into powder.

One interesting thing about this type of engine:

Since they don’t rely on turbines, but rocket propulsion to rotate and/or generate thrust, they are not limited by the efficiency of turbines, nor the speed limit of blades, which is the speed of sound.

Blades must always avoid reaching the speed of sound due to drag, mechanical limitations, efficiency etc. But what happens when you don’t have to worry about these factors?

While looking at these I found a few interesting things:

Thermodynamic performance evaluation of a turbine-less jet engine integrated with solid oxide fuel cells for unmanned aerial vehicles - ScienceDirect

US20060230746A1 - Turbineless jet engine - Google Patents

Gas turbine operating parameters? - Thunder Said Energy

You could also make it double intake and double exhaust, kinda like a steam turbine.

I was wondering if it would be better to add the fuel through the exhaust (since the exhaust is doubled in the middle), so the fuel gets hot enough to be reformed.

In either way, I do think I should increase the pressure instead of working with a helium turbine engine at 1000ºC, this way you could also reduce the temperature and make nitrogen viable again.

Source: GAS-TURBINE COMPRESSORS: Understanding stall, surge – Combined Cycle Journal. 

Source: Influence of Operation Conditions and Ambient Temperature on Performance of Gas Turbine Power Plant Advanced Nuclear OpenAir-Brayton Cycles for Highly Efficient Power Conversion 

There is also the possibility of maintaining high temperature (1000ºC) and high pressure (200 bar/20 Mpa), increasing the power density of the system.

How to light an IR plate burner and Why ? (I was wondering about the possibility of using a similar burner for the heat-exchange system)

One weird thing, graphite’s resistivity is the lowest at 1000 kelvin (726 ºC):

Source: (PDF) Numerical Analysis of a Radiant Heat Flux Calibration System 

My Wind Generator Was Useless....Until NOW! (MPPT) 

Two plane dynamic balancing machine for model jet engine 

• 3D model bypass valves and intercoolers.
• 3D model syngas converter/reformer with electrical heater for starting the power plant.
• 3D model oscillating swirl combustion chambers.
• The diaphragm piston models.
• The check valves.
• The electromagnetic bearings.
• Camshaft system (if required).

Any machine works best at its rated power input/output, but I don’t know if it would be practical to make an “efficiency-regulator” that purposefully cuts off the output during low output operations. Like I did with the electric motors, which can close off some of its wires to “virtually” reduce its output.

• 3D modeling:

On an unrelated note, what should I name it?

I guess that “Guaraci engine” would be a good name, since it is supposedly meant to work so unbearably hot you could even use molten steel as a coolant…

Now that I stop to think about it…

Wouldn’t the best solution be to use both of the power source options (molten carbonate fuel cell and helium turbine) in a Combined cycle power plant?

It is said that the molten carbonate fuel cell can only reach efficiencies up to 80% by recycling its heat source such as in the case of a steam turbine engine. The helium turbine is used just like a steam turbine engine in order to convert heat into work…

The only problem is weight and bulk.

🔶🔶🔶🔶

(I will write these orange squares to keep track of parts where I’m procrastinating, so I finish them already)

• NOW I need to make the Heat-exchanger/Radiator/Cooler:

I need to make the model of all the heat exchangers into spiral heat exchangers (because these are the most efficient ones), these heat exchangers will also function as the fuel reformers.

The heat exchanger will serve both for the helium “turbine” engine generator and for the cryocooler (in case people actually use it for something).

Spiral Heat Exchangers Explained

3D Printed Heat Exchangers For High Temperature And Pressure | The Cool Parts Show Bonus 

Plate heat exchanger - Wikipedia

Which Heat Exchanger Is Best? The Three Main Types Explained... 

Heat Pipes and Other Heat Transfer Techniques 

Powder and other chemicals can be trapped inside of a heat exchanger. So it could be interesting to make it in a conical way so it works like a cyclone filter.

Dust Collection: Small Changes, Massive Effect! 

By the way, sheet lamination 3D printing can allow for very interesting heat exchanger designs:

Source: 3D Printed Heat Exchangers For High Temperature And Pressure | The Cool Parts Show Bonus 

Sheet Lamination 3D Printing: An Additive Manufacturing Process Explained #3dprinting #engineering 

It is also possible to use Plasmatron fuel reformers. You can also use cold-plasma/non-thermal plasma/non-equilibrium plasma to reform the fuel. A Developed Plasmatron Design to Enhance Production of Hydrogen in Synthesis Gas Produced by a Fuel Reformer System

Non-thermal plasma-catalytic processes for CO2 conversion toward circular economy: fundamentals, current status, and future challenges | Environmental Science and Pollution Research

Electrification of gasification-based biomass-to-X processes – a critical review and in-depth assessment - Energy & Environmental Science (RSC Publishing) DOI:10.1039/D3EE02876C 

Experimental Investigation on Compact Current Non Thermal Plasma Assisted Hydrocarbon Reforming Hydrogen Rich Gas

Low Current Non-Thermal Plasma Assisted Hydrocarbon Reforming Hydrogen Rich Gas

Partial oxidation and autothermal reforming of heavy hydrocarbon fuels with non-equilibrium gliding arc plasma for fuel cell applications - Drexel University 

Non-thermal plasma-assisted steam methane reforming for electrically-driven hydrogen production (although this one talks about steam reforming, since you will take wood to turn into fuel for the carbon fuel cell, it will also contain some amount of water, which in turn, will turn into steam) As far as I could see, most of the articles focus on producing hydrogen or syngas in more processes both for hydrogen fuel cells and synthesis of other fuels and materials

I don’t know if this will be relevant, but every now and then I check out radiators for spacecraft.

They are a fascinating subject, although I don’t know if they would be that useful in an atmosphere.

Ribbon radiators seem to be the most practical ones, since they expand with the conversion of liquid coolant into vapor and contract once it releases heat.

Source: https://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/heatrad.php 

• Make the model of all the heat exchangers into spiral heat exchangers 
• Make these heat-exchangers also capable of being used for fuel reforming.
• The same heating chamber can be used to dry up silica gel beads that absorb humidity. Regenerate, Dry and Reuse Silica Beads Gel/Desiccant SUPER FAST With an Air Fryer! 
• I also need to add/3D model the Oil separator just as a precaution.
• Remember to add the thermostat and temperature control systems.
• I was thinking of 3D modeling the radiator, but since I already have a heat exchanger (which is the same thing), I would need to make a self-cleaning air-filter for the ambient air radiator/heat exchanger. So, I need to 3D model the self-cleaning dust filter

🔶🔶🔶🔶

(I will write these orange squares to keep track of parts where I’m procrastinating, so I finish them already)

• Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell 3D model:

Since I want to actually finish the mech project, I will abandon this idea and focus on the helium engine.

BEFORE HANDLING LITHIUM CARBONATE (and other chemicals), PLEASE REMEMBER THAT I AM NOT AN ENGINEER AND YOU DO ANYTHING AT YOUR OWN RISK.

PLEASE READ:

Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet: Lithium Carbonate https://www.nj.gov/health/eoh/rtkweb/documents/fs/1124.pdf

Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet: Sodium Carbonate https://www.borderjanitorial.co.uk/files/COSHH/SodiumCarbonate.pdf

Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet: Potassium Carbonate https://www.chemos.de/import/data/msds/GB_en/584-08-7-A0216451-GB-en.pdf

Observation:

I was revisiting metal hydrides and I found out that aluminum hydride, lithium hydride and lithium aluminum hydride can hold hydrogen with 10% of its weight and releases hydrogen passively even at ambient temperature. You would need to cool it down to around -70ºC to -100ºC in order to avoid that.

Well, you would still need 100 kilograms of aluminum for every 10 kilograms of hydrogen, but in this state, it is 2 times denser than liquid hydrogen, which already has 142 megajoules of energy per kilogram.

But if you use an alkaline fuel cell and if you expel the resulting water, you could maintain 100 horsepower for around 10 hours with 100 kilograms of aluminum and 10 kilograms of hydrogen.

Even if you had an efficiency of 50% instead of 70% to 80%, you would still “just” need around 200 kilograms of aluminum.

However, as you can imagine, it is extremely dangerous and difficult to synthesize aluminum hydride and lithium hydride.

ChatGPT keeps saying that you need to convert lithium hydride into lithium aluminum hydride in order to get aluminum hydride. And in order to get lithium hydride:

“Reduction of Lithium Hydroxide:

Another method involves the reduction of lithium hydroxide (LiOH) using a reducing metal. In this process, anhydrous lithium hydroxide is mixed with a reducing agent (such as aluminum or magnesium) and heated in the absence of air. The reaction occurs at temperatures between 300 °C and 550 °C, producing lithium hydride and the corresponding metal oxide “

In the end you would need a smaller molten carbonate fuel cell to slowly recharge the hydrogen fuel cell. But if you want to save weight as much as possible, then it could be a good compromise.

Observation 2:

Cold plasma, or non-thermal plasma, or non-equilibrium plasma is a type of plasma that can be made without melting everything that it touches.

However, since it is full of free electrons and free ions, it can be used as a catalyst for chemical reactions.

Nonthermal plasma - Wikipedia 

Cold Fire You Can Touch - DIY Cold Plasma Torch

The Cold Plasma Wand That Heals (Microjet)⚡  

You could (or should) add this to the fuel cell.

Well, I’m writing this now because I missed a really important issue: Vegetable coal has sulfur on it.

Sulfur can “poison” the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Electrolyte, degrading the fuel cell performance/efficiency.

Something as low as 0.1 grams can affect the cells.

Vegetable coal can have around 100-200 grams of sulfur in 200kg. And since the idea was to use vegetable coal as fuel…

And there is no simple method to remove it in biomatter, you need acid baths using sulfuric acid, water bath etc.

There are sulfur and chloride scrubbers, but they are applied when the biochar/biofuel is converted into Syngas.

But I can’t find a compact and easy solution for it, they mostly use giant chemical filters that need to be constantly re-treated using a myriad of different methods to avoid saturation.

I need to check if all of this is true, but essentially, ChatGPT said the following:

• zinc oxide absorbs sulfur and turns into zinc sulfide, it returns to zinc oxide when heated to 500-900ºC in the presence of oxygen. I searched and it actually works. ✅ Source: Method for oxidative roasting of sulfide zinc concentrates in an air oxygen stream in fluidized bed furnaces. 
• Ammonia reacts with sulfur and turns into ammonium sulfide, it goes back to ammonia by heating it to 100-150ºC. But it also turns into gas. I searched and it only works in the presence of a catalyst (molybdenum or tungsten). ☑️ Source: A facile and reliable route to prepare highly dispersive ammonium dimolybdate uniform crystals from commercial molybdenum oxide - ScienceDirect 
• Calcium oxide reacts with sulfur to make calcium sulfide/sulfate (gypsum), it reverts when heated to 1000ºC in the presence of oxygen. I searched and it only works in the presence of carbon. ☑️ Source: https://academic.oup.com/bcsj/article-abstract/51/1/121/7356614?redirectedFrom=fulltext https://trea.com/information/calcium-sulfide-decomposition-process/patentapplication/da923b8e-1567-4215-ba30-cc5cbf5302c3

All of these methods release sulfur in a gas form.

Now for chloride:

• Sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate absorbs chloride, turning into sodium chloride (NaCl, table salt), dissolves in water then applies electrolysis to produce sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas and hydrogen gas. I searched and it actually works. ✅ Source: Making Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic soda) From Salt 
• Calcium oxide absorbs Chloride and turns into calcium oxide, to revert it you need to react with water vapor at 700-900ºC or use the electrolysis process used in sodium chloride. I searched and it actually works. ✅ Source: US6994836B2 - Method of recovering chlorine gas from calcium chloride - Google Patents Calcium chloride - Wikipedia 
• Ammonia reacts with chloride and turns into ammonium chloride, it decomposes back into ammonia by heating it, but it turns into gas. I searched and it actually works. ✅ Source: Ammonium chloride - Wikipedia 

So the idea is to:

• Pass the charcoal through the hot chamber of the fuel cell with pipes, convert it into syngas.
• Then it goes through a physical filter/tornado filter to remove metals and other impurities
• Then pass it through a filter with a sodium carbonate chloride scrubber.
• It is necessary to cool down the syngas or else the zinc scrubbers will end up absorbing the CO2 and/or hydrogen. So it must go through a cooler/Heat Exchanger which will be placed at the intake of the air so the heat isn’t lost.
• Then pass it through a zinc oxide sulfur scrubber.
• Then it goes into a heat exchanger at the exhaust of the fuel cell to absorb the heat.
• Then it finally goes into the fuel cell.

Also, Pyrolysis (the process of heating charcoal/biomatter in a low oxygen environment) only works at around 800ºC to 1000ºC with 90% efficiency in conversion of matter into syngas.

Some papers describe how they only use sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate, not even worrying about lithium carbonate.

They also describe how the cells work at 800ºC because all of the carbonates are in liquid form at such temperature.

So…

There will be multiple zinc scrubbers and sodium carbonate scrubbers that will be selectively closed to go through the reversing process.

• I don’t need to 3D model the molten carbonate fuel cell because it is pretty similar to normal cells and it only needs different materials.
• Example of open source fuel cell model: Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell | 3D CAD Model Library | GrabCAD PEM Fuel Cell | 3D CAD Model Library | GrabCAD 

You can “just” copy the parts and replace them with the proper materials, sodium silicate, potassium silicate, lithium silicate and calcium silicate (not obligatory) mixed with sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and lithium carbonate.

I also talked about how these fuel cells output is based on the surface area contact of the electrodes with the electrolyte, so in order to keep it with the biggest surface area as possible, you would need to use super thin stainless steel wires stacked parallelly for that.

More specifically, 120 milliwatts per square centimeter, divided by 300,000 watts, the area in square meters would be around 4774m² assuming 120 miliwatts per square centimeter.

But assuming around 96 mW/cm² I would need 1,041,666 cm² for 100,000 watts.

This would be the surface area of a stainless steel 0.8mm thick wire with 45 meters of length weighing around 0.2 kilograms. For 1mm of thickness it would be around 450 meter long stainless steel wire weighing around 3 kilograms.

Observation:

I always assumed that the energy generated each hour by the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell powered by wood would be 30 megajoules per kilogram of wood (either because I’m insane or because I didn’t question ChatGPT), but that is incorrect.

The energy density of wood is 16 megajoules per kilogram, and assuming the whole process has a 50% efficiency, then you would have a total of 8 megajoules per kilogram.

Since using 100 horsepower per hour would require 264 megajoules, then it would require 2647 megajoules in 10 hours.

2647 Mj / 8 Mj per kilogram = 330 kilograms of wood in total for 10 hours at 100 horsepower. 33 kg of wood per hour, 5.5kg of wood per minute and 0.1 kg of wood per second.

But since circles/cylinders does not have the best surface area contact, I will have to make some considerations:

As you can see in these wires, only a small part of it is in contact.

On the right, the cylinders have 18.8mm² of area, on the left, they have 5.8mm² of area. So you would need to increase the number of wires in contact by 3.2x times (a little more, 3.3 or 3.4). That is true for any thickness of wire (I tested it).

So, you would need 0.66 kilograms for every 100 kilowatts for the 0.8mm wires and 10 kilograms for every 100 kilowatt for the 1 mm wires.

In order to enhance the performance of the molten carbonate fuel cell you can add a few additives.

I will make a list, but remember: I’m talking about adding around 1% of these additives per weight of electrolyte (not the total weight of the cell), all of them or each one of them and even then, they can cause unexpected issues in either quantity (or simply not affect the cell significantly, for better or for worse).

They can also be dangerous in their own right.

The list:

Magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate (this one is said to “clog” the electrolyte in some case), barium carbonate, inconel, lithium oxide, samarium oxide, magnesium oxide, nickel oxide, copper oxide, titanium dioxide, cobalt oxide, lanthanum oxide, manganese oxide, iron oxide, aluminum oxide, vanadium oxide, molybdenum disulfide, platinum, ruthenium, tungsten oxide, silicon carbide, yttria-stabilized zirconia and rhenium.

Observation:

When I try to buy zirconia powder by itself it is insanely expensive, but ceramic knives are made out of it and they are super cheap, even in packs.

The weight of the electrolyte may heavily depend on its thickness.

If you assume the electrolyte has a density around 2.3 g/cm³, 1mm of thickness and the area I calculated before for the wires (3,437,497cm² per 100,000 watts), you would need around 790 kilograms.

To keep it around 1 kilogram, you would need to make its thickness around 0.001 mm, which is 1 micrometer.

Which is not very realistic.

You would need to increase its weight by 10 to 100 times (10kg to 100kg) in order to keep the thickness around 0.01mm to 0.1mm.

That is the weight before mixing it with the silicates (sodium, potassium etc), by the way.

• The initial idea was to make 3 cells of 100 kilowatt output, but just for redundancy, I will make 5 to 6 (depending on the size). Four/five 100 kilowatt fuel cells and one 50 kilowatt for low power loads.

What should I call this fuel cell?

Tupã-5?

Meaning from Wikipedia:

“Tupã or Tupan (also Tupave or Tenondete) is the word for God in the Tupi and Guarani languages, including the Guarani creation myth.

Tupã is considered to be the creator of the universe, of humanity and of the spirits of good and evil in Guarani mythology referred to as Angatupyry and Tau respectively. Tupã is more specifically considered the creator of light and his residence is the Sun.

A contest was run by the Centro Paraguayo de Informaciones Astronómicas in Paraguay in 2019. This bestowed the star HD 108147 with the name Tupã in December 2019.”

By the way, I will increase the total output to 750 volts and 500 amps, 375,000 watts in total (500 horsepower), because of the possible inefficiencies in the system and in the actuators.

Also, I’m wondering what kind of material I should use for the electrodes.

Yes, normally nickel, inconel and stainless steel are used as electrodes, but they almost never use these in the micrometer thickness. Even less in the powder form as I’m intending on doing.

A few electrically conductive ceramics I found:

Silicon carbide, tin oxide, lead oxide, bismuth ruthenate, bismuth iridate, iridium oxide, ferrite/iron oxide, Indium Tin Oxide (ITO), Lanthanum-Doped Strontium Titanate (SLT), Yttrium-Doped Strontium Titanate (SYT), Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia (YSZ), Gadolinium-Doped Ceria (GDC), Lanthanum Strontium Gallate Magnesite (LSGM), Beta Alumina, Silicon Nitride (Si₃N₄), Zinc Oxide (ZnO), Barium Titanate (BT), Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT), Molybdenum Disilicide (MoSi₂), Lanthanum Trifluoride (LaF₃), Lead(II) Chloride (PbCl₂), NASICON (Na₃Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂), Silver Iodide (AgI), Rubidium Silver Iodide (RbAg₄I₅), Barium Titanate (BaTiO₃).

Well, I think the most practical alternative for electrode material would be using silicon carbide and/or tin oxide.

Well, I slowly asked ChatGPT to check one by one just to be sure, because it doesn’t delves into details when talking about a lot of subjects at once:

• “Silicon carbide (SiC) is a semiconductor material that can exhibit electrical conductivity under certain conditions. Its intrinsic electrical conductivity varies depending on factors such as temperature and doping levels. For instance, C-added SiC has an electrical conductivity ranging from 0.7 to 1.4 × 10² S/m at temperatures between 298 K and 1150 K. Full article: Electrical and thermal properties of off-stoichiometric SiC prepared by spark plasma sintering”
• “Tin Oxide (SnO₂) electrical conductivity can vary depending on factors such as doping, temperature, and the presence of reducing or oxidizing agents. In the presence of carbonates at elevated temperatures (800°C to 900°C), SnO₂ can undergo chemical reactions. For instance, during the carbothermic reduction of tin-bearing ores, SnO₂ can be reduced to SnO and subsequently volatilize as Sn at temperatures around 900°C. Volatilization behavior of tin during carbothermic reduction of tin-bearing middling to recover tin Additionally, SnO₂ is known to be chemically stable in many environments, but at high temperatures, exposure to carbonates may lead to reactions such as the formation of tin carbonate, which can decompose at elevated temperatures, potentially affecting the stability of SnO₂.”
• “Lead oxide (PbO) is an amphoteric compound with prevalent acidic properties. It dissolves in strong bases to form the hydroxyplumbate ion, Pb(OH)₄²⁻, and reacts with basic oxides in the melt, yielding orthoplumbates. Additionally, lead dioxide (PbO₂) decomposes upon heating in air, with the stoichiometry of the end product controlled by changing the temperature. Lead dioxide - Wikipedia Regarding its electrical conductivity, lead dioxide has a characteristic electrode potential and can be polarized both anodically and cathodically in electrolytes. Lead dioxide electrodes have a dual action, with both the lead and oxygen ions taking part in the electrochemical reactions.”
• “Bismuth ruthenate (Bi₃Ru₃O₁₁) is known for its high electrical conductivity and exhibits a slight thermal activation in its conductivity, with an activation energy of approximately 4.1 × 10⁻³ eV. Regarding its chemical stability in the presence of carbonates at elevated temperatures (800°C to 900°C), specific data is limited. However, at temperatures around 900°C, bismuth ruthenate undergoes a phase transformation from Bi₃Ru₃O₁₁ to Bi₂Ru₂O₇, which may influence its interaction with carbonates. Electrical conductivity and crystallization of amorphous bismuth ruthenate thin films deposited by spray pyrolysis”
• “Bismuth iridate (Bi₂Ir₂O₇) is a pyrochlore oxide known for its metallic conductivity and stability in acidic environments. It has been studied for applications such as oxygen evolution reactions due to its robust electrochemical properties. Bismuth Iridium Oxide Oxygen Evolution Catalyst from Hydrothermal Synthesis | Chemistry of Materials Regarding its chemical stability in the presence of carbonates at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C, specific data is limited. However, bismuth compounds, including Bi₂O₃, have been observed to undergo chemical reconstruction when exposed to carbonates, forming heterostructures like Bi₂O₂CO₃/Bi₂O₃. This suggests that bismuth-containing materials can interact with carbonates under certain conditions. Reconstructed Bismuth Oxide through in situ Carbonation by Carbonate-containing Electrolyte for Highly Active Electrocatalytic CO2 Reduction to Formate - PubMed”
• “Iridium oxide (IrO₂) is known for its high electrical conductivity and chemical stability, making it a valuable material in various high-temperature applications. Its conductivity is enhanced when structured as a nanoporous core-shell architecture, where an iridium oxide shell is formed on a metallic iridium core. This design not only improves conductivity but also balances activity and stability, particularly in catalytic processes like the oxygen evolution reaction. Balancing activity, stability and conductivity of nanoporous core-shell iridium/iridium oxide oxygen evolution catalysts - PMC Regarding its stability in the presence of carbonates at temperatures between 800ºC and 900ºC, specific data is limited. However, iridium oxide is generally recognized for its robustness in various chemical environments. For instance, in electrochemical applications, iridium oxide demonstrates high chemical stability in acidic media, which suggests a degree of resilience to reactive species. Nanostructured Iridium Oxide: State of the Art “
• “Ferrites, which are iron oxide-based compounds, are generally characterized by low electrical conductivity. This property makes them suitable for applications like magnetic cores in transformers, where low conductivity helps suppress eddy currents. Ferrite (magnet) - Wikipedia Regarding chemical stability, ferrites are typically stable in various environments. However, their stability in the presence of carbonates at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C can vary depending on the specific composition of the ferrite and the nature of the carbonates involved. For instance, barium ferrate, a specific type of ferrite, decomposes when exposed to carbonates, forming barium carbonate, ferric hydroxide, and releasing oxygen gas. Barium ferrate - Wikipedia ”
• “Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) is a widely used transparent conducting oxide known for its electrical conductivity and optical transparency. It is typically stable up to temperatures around 1,000°C. Studies have shown that ITO films maintain stable electrical properties when heated to 1,000°C for at least 2.5 hours. High Temperature Conductive Stability of Indium Tin Oxide Films However, the chemical stability of ITO in the presence of carbonates at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C is not well-documented in the available literature. While ITO is known to decompose at temperatures above 1,100°C in nitrogen environments, Evaluation of Indium Tin Oxide for Gas Sensing Applications: Adsorption/Desorption and Electrical Conductivity Studies on Powders and Thick Films - PMC”
• “Lanthanum-doped strontium titanate (LST) is known for its high electrical conductivity and chemical stability, making it a promising material for applications such as solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). Studies have demonstrated that LST exhibits excellent electrical conductivity, with values reaching up to 82 S/cm at 800°C under specific conditions. Thermal, Electrical, and Electrocatalytical Properties of Lanthanum-Doped Strontium Titanate Regarding chemical stability, LST has shown resilience under various conditions. For instance, it maintains dimensional and chemical stability during oxidation–reduction cycling, which is crucial for its performance in electrochemical applications. However, specific data on the chemical stability of LST in the presence of carbonates at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C is limited.”
• “Yttrium-doped strontium titanate (SYT) exhibits notable electrical conductivity and chemical stability under specific conditions. Studies have demonstrated that SYT maintains high electrical conductivity, particularly at compositions near the solubility limit, such as Sr₀.88Y₀.08TiO₃−δ, where conductivity reaches approximately 64 S/cm at 800°C. Electrical Properties of Yttrium-Doped Strontium Titanate under Reducing Conditions Regarding chemical stability, SYT has shown resilience under reducing conditions, which is advantageous for applications like solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). However, specific data on its stability in the presence of carbonates at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C is limited. While SYT's inherent resistance to oxidation and hydroxylation suggests potential stability in various environments, including those with high steam concentrations, its behavior in carbonate-rich atmospheres at elevated temperatures requires further investigation.Modified Pechini synthesis and characterization of Y-doped strontium titanate perovskite ”
• “Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia (YSZ) is primarily an ionic conductor, facilitating the movement of oxygen ions (O²⁻) rather than electrons. This property makes it suitable for applications like solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), where oxygen ion conduction is essential. Yttria-stabilized zirconia - Wikipedia The interaction between YSZ and carbonates can result in the formation of zirconium carbonates or other unstable phases, potentially leading to material degradation.”
• “Gadolinium-doped ceria (GDC) is known for its high ionic conductivity, particularly at elevated temperatures. Its electrical conductivity increases with temperature, making it suitable for applications in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) and other high-temperature electrochemical devices. Electrical and Ionic Conductivity of Gd‐Doped Ceria | Request PDF Regarding chemical stability, GDC exhibits good compatibility with various cathode materials and operates effectively in reducing environments. However, its stability in the presence of carbonates at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C is less well-documented.”
• “Lanthanum Strontium Gallate Magnesite (LSGM) is a highly electronically conductive material with proven long-term stability, making it suitable for applications such as solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). Lanthanum Gallate, Strontium and Magnesium Doped (LSGM) | AMERICAN ELEMENTS ® | CAS 165900-07-2 Regarding its chemical stability in the presence of carbonates at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C, specific information is limited. While LSGM exhibits high ionic conductivity and chemical stability over a wide range of conditions, the interaction between LSGM and carbonates at elevated temperatures has not been extensively studied. Microstructure and mechanical properties of doped-lanthanum gallate with addition of yttria-stabilized zirconia “
• “Beta-alumina is a solid electrolyte known for its high ionic conductivity, particularly for sodium ions, and its low electronic conductivity. This makes it suitable for applications like sodium-sulfur batteries. Its crystal structure features channels that facilitate ion movement, while its electronic bandgap of approximately 9 eV prevents electronic conductivity. Beta-alumina solid electrolyte - Wikipedia Regarding chemical stability in the presence of carbonates at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C, specific data is limited. Beta-alumina is generally stable in various environments, but its interaction with carbonates at these high temperatures hasn't been extensively studied. For instance, a study on lithium beta-alumina noted its wide stability window, but it didn't specifically address interactions with carbonates. Interface Stability in Solid-State Batteries | Chemistry of Materials”
• “Silicon nitride (Si₃N₄) is generally an excellent electrical insulator, with resistivity values around 10¹² Ω·cm. The Electrical Properties of Si3N4 However, certain formulations, such as Syalon 501, are engineered to be electrically conductive, with resistivity as low as 7.2 × 10⁻⁴ Ω·cm. Regarding chemical stability, silicon nitride exhibits high resistance to chemical attack, including from carbonates, due to its strong covalent bonding and inert nature. This stability is maintained at elevated temperatures, such as 800°C to 900°C. Silicon nitride - Wikipedia
• “Zinc oxide (ZnO) is a semiconductor material with electrical conductivity that varies with temperature and doping levels. At 800°C, its conductivity begins to reach saturation, with Hall effect measurements indicating a free electron density of approximately 10¹⁸ cm⁻³ at room temperature. The Electrical Conductivity of Zinc Oxide | Phys. Rev. Regarding chemical stability, ZnO is thermally stable up to its decomposition point of around 1975°C. However, at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C, ZnO can react with carbon to form zinc vapor and carbon monoxide: ZnO+C→Zn (vapor)+CO This reaction suggests that ZnO may not be chemically stable in the presence of carbonates at these temperatures. Zinc oxide - Wikipedia”
• “Barium Titanate (BaTiO₃) is generally considered an electrical insulator at room temperature, exhibiting high resistivity. However, its electrical conductivity can increase under certain conditions, such as doping with specific elements or exposure to elevated temperatures. For instance, doping BaTiO₃ with lanthanum (La³⁺) ions has been shown to enhance its conductivity up to a certain concentration, beyond which the conductivity decreases due to cation vacancy compensation. https://www.ajer.org/papers/v2%288%29/A0280107.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com Regarding chemical stability, BaTiO₃ has been studied for its interactions with carbon dioxide (CO₂) at temperatures around 700 K (approximately 427°C). Research indicates that while BaTiO₃ nanocatalysts can facilitate CO₂ conversion, carbon deposition occurs on the nanocatalysts above certain pressures, leading to the formation of graphitic carbon. Pressure-dependent CO 2 thermolysis on barium titanate nanocatalysts”
• “Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) is generally considered an insulator. However, its electrical conductivity can vary based on factors such as composition, doping, and processing conditions. Some studies have observed p-type conductivity in PZT ceramics, attributed to lead vacancies. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN LEAD TITANATE ZIRCONATE CERAMICS (Journal Article) | OSTI.GOV Additionally, the temperature dependence of its ac conductivity indicates that conduction processes are due to singly ionized (in the ferroelectric region) and doubly ionized (in the paraelectric region) states. Dielectric and electrical properties of lead zirconate titanate Chemical Stability in the Presence of Carbonates at 800ºC to 900ºC: PZT is typically stable at high temperatures. For instance, PZT particles have been synthesized at temperatures up to 1000°C using a solid-state reaction method. One-step synthesis of lead zirconate titanate particles using a solid-state reaction method However, the chemical stability of PZT in the presence of carbonates at temperatures between 800ºC and 900ºC has not been extensively studied. While PZT is generally stable under recommended conditions, the specific interaction between PZT and carbonates at these elevated temperatures requires further investigation to determine its stability. PZT (Lead Zirconate Titanate) | Safety Data Sheet (SDS)”
• “Molybdenum disilicide (MoSi₂) is an electrically conductive refractory ceramic with a melting point of 2030°C. It is commonly used in heating elements due to its high-temperature stability and electrical conductivity. Molybdenum disilicide - Wikipedia Regarding its chemical stability in the presence of carbonates at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C, specific data is limited. MoSi₂ is known to form a protective silicon dioxide (SiO₂) layer at high temperatures, which enhances its oxidation resistance. However, the interaction between MoSi₂ and carbonates at these temperatures has not been extensively studied. In general, molybdenum disilicide is stable under recommended storage conditions and is not reactive with most substances. Molybdenum Silicide (MoSi2) | AMERICAN ELEMENTS ® Nonetheless, the specific effects of carbonates on MoSi₂ at elevated temperatures remain unclear.”
• “Lanthanum trifluoride (LaF₃) is an ionic compound known for its high melting point and chemical stability. It exhibits low electrical conductivity at room temperature, with specific conductivities on the order of 10⁻⁸ Ω·cm. However, its ionic conductivity increases significantly at elevated temperatures. A study reported that LaF₃ single crystals containing 0.15 mole percent calcium ion impurities exhibited specific conductivities of approximately 10⁻⁴ Ω·cm at 740°C, indicating enhanced ionic conductivity at higher temperatures. ionic conductivity of lanthanum fluoride Regarding chemical stability, LaF₃ is generally resistant to chemical reactions due to its strong ionic bonds and high melting point. However, specific interactions with carbonates at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C are not well-documented in the available literature. Given the high temperatures and the potential for chemical reactions at these conditions, it is advisable to conduct empirical tests to assess the stability of LaF₃ in the presence of carbonates under these specific conditions.”
• “At ambient temperatures, Lead(II) Chloride (PbCl₂) is an insulator. However, at elevated temperatures, it exhibits ionic conductivity. Specifically, at temperatures above 500°C, PbCl₂ becomes a conductor due to the increased mobility of lead and chloride ions within its crystal lattice. This property is characteristic of certain ionic compounds, which become conductive at high temperatures. Lead(II) chloride - Wikipedia At temperatures between 800°C and 900°C, PbCl₂ is thermally stable and does not decompose. The specific effects of carbonates at these elevated temperatures are not well-documented in the available literature.
• “NASICON (Na₃Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂) is a sodium-conducting solid electrolyte known for its high ionic conductivity and chemical stability. Its electrical conductivity is typically in the range of 10⁻⁶ to 10⁻⁴ S/cm at room temperature, which increases with temperature. At elevated temperatures, such as 800°C to 900°C, NASICON maintains its high ionic conductivity, making it suitable for high-temperature applications. Activating reversible carbonate reactions in Nasicon solid electrolyte-based Na-air battery via in-situ formed catholyte - PMC Regarding chemical stability in the presence of carbonates at these temperatures, NASICON exhibits good stability. Studies have demonstrated that NASICON-based solid electrolytes can facilitate electrochemical reactions involving carbonates, such as in Na-air cells operating at ambient temperatures. These reactions involve the formation and decomposition of sodium carbonates (Na₂CO₃·xH₂O) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), indicating that NASICON can interact with carbonates without significant degradation.
• “Silver iodide (AgI) is an ionic compound that exhibits low electrical conductivity under standard conditions. However, at elevated temperatures, particularly above 146°C, AgI undergoes a phase transition to a high-temperature form known as α-AgI, which exhibits significantly increased ionic conductivity. This high-temperature phase is characterized by a disordered body-centered cubic structure, allowing for enhanced ion mobility. Polymorphism Of Silver Iodide | American Mineralogist | GeoScienceWorld Regarding its chemical stability in the presence of carbonates at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C, specific studies on this interaction are limited. However, general information about the thermal properties of AgI indicates that it has a melting point of 558°C and a boiling point of 1506°C. This suggests that AgI remains solid at temperatures up to 900°C. Silver Iodide, AgI, (Miersite) In the presence of carbonates, AgI may undergo reactions leading to the formation of silver carbonate (Ag₂CO₃) or other compounds, especially under high-temperature conditions. For instance, silver carbonate decomposes at temperatures around 510 K (approximately 237°C) to form silver oxide and carbon dioxide. Decomposition of Silver Carbonate; the Crystal Structure of Two High-Temperature Modifications of Ag2CO3 | Inorganic Chemistry
• “Rubidium silver iodide (RbAg₄I₅) is a ternary inorganic compound known for its high ionic conductivity, attributed to the movement of silver ions within its crystal lattice. Rubidium silver iodide - Wikipedia While specific studies on the chemical stability of RbAg₄I₅ in the presence of carbonates at temperatures between 800ºC and 900ºC are limited, it is known that silver iodide (AgI), a component of RbAg₄I₅, can decompose under certain conditions, especially at high temperatures.”
• Barium Titanate (BaTiO₃) is a ceramic material known for its piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties. Its electrical conductivity is generally low, but it can be enhanced through doping with certain elements. For instance, doping BaTiO₃ with 0.15% of La³⁺ ions increases its conductivity, which then decreases with higher doping concentrations due to cation vacancy compensation. https://www.ajer.org/papers/v2%288%29/A0280107.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com Regarding chemical stability, BaTiO₃ is known to be attacked by sulfuric acid and is soluble in concentrated hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids. Barium titanate - Wikipedia However, specific information about its stability in the presence of carbonates at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C is limited. At these elevated temperatures, BaTiO₃ may undergo phase transitions and could potentially react with certain compounds. Therefore, while BaTiO₃ is chemically stable under many conditions, its behavior in the presence of carbonates at high temperatures would require further investigation to determine its stability accurately.”

Now all I have to do is choose.

… I'm not in the mood at the moment to do so…

Making Ionic Liquids: The Future of Solvents and Catalysis? 

I was wondering about the possibility of having an alkaline biomimetic fluid system similar to blood.

Alkaline fuel cells can work with any kind of fuel, but any content of carbon can turn the hydroxides in the cell into carbonate crystals.

So the idea would be to continuously pump hydroxide based electrolyte fluid/gel through the membrane and continuously feed the carbonate through a machine that would reverse said process.

I asked ChatGPT and DeepSeek:

“Causticization with Calcium Hydroxide: Process: Sodium carbonate reacts with calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) to regenerate NaOH, while calcium carbonate precipitates out. Requires a steady supply of calcium hydroxide.

The byproduct, calcium carbonate, must be thermally decomposed (∼900°C) to regenerate CaO (quicklime), which is then hydrated back to Ca(OH)₂. This adds complexity and energy costs.

Electro